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Negative reinforcement and punishment are often confused but serve distinct functions in behavior modification. Reinforcement, whether positive or negative, increases the likelihood of a desired behavior, while punishment decreases it.
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Gender differences in negative reinforcement smoking expectancies.

Raina D Pang1, Michael J Zvolensky2, Norman B Schmidt3

  • 1Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA; rpang@usc.edu.

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Women are more likely to smoke to alleviate negative feelings than men. This finding suggests that coping strategies for negative emotions may be crucial for smoking cessation in women.

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Area of Science:

  • Psychology
  • Addiction Research
  • Gender Studies

Background:

  • Previous research indicates women may smoke more for negative reinforcement (NR) than men.
  • It is unclear if gender differences in NR smoking expectancies persist independently of depression and other expectancies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate gender differences in negative smoking reinforcement expectancies.
  • To determine if these differences exist beyond other factors like depression and nicotine dependence.

Main Methods:

  • Examined gender and negative smoking reinforcement expectancies in two independent samples of daily smokers.
  • Sample 1: 188 males, 91 females (non-treatment seeking). Sample 2: 257 males, 237 females (treatment seeking).

Main Results:

  • Females consistently reported stronger negative reinforcement (NR) smoking expectancies compared to males across both samples.
  • These findings remained significant even after controlling for nicotine dependence, other smoking expectancies, anxiety, and depression.

Conclusions:

  • Beliefs that smoking alleviates negative affect may represent a gender-specific process more prevalent in women.
  • Smoking cessation interventions for women may benefit from enhanced coping strategies for negative affect and challenging NR expectancies.