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Related Concept Videos

Carbohydrate Digestion00:57

Carbohydrate Digestion

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Carbohydrate digestion and metabolism break down simple and complex carbohydrates from food into saccharides (i.e., sugars) for the body to use as energy. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth during mastication, or chewing. The masticated carbohydrates remain intact in the stomach. Digestion resumes in the duodenum of the small intestine, where pancreatic alpha-amylase and brush border enzymes of the microvilli convert complex carbohydrates to monosaccharides. Finally, the monosaccharides...
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Carbohydrate Absorption01:25

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Carbohydrates are essential macronutrients that serve as the body's primary energy source. Their digestion begins in the mouth, where salivary amylase partially breaks down complex carbohydrates such as starch into smaller oligosaccharides. This mechanical and enzymatic activity prepares carbohydrates for further processing in the gastrointestinal tract.
After being swallowed, the partially digested carbohydrates mix with gastric secretions in the stomach. However, the acidic environment...
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Oligosaccharide Assembly01:24

Oligosaccharide Assembly

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Protein glycosylation starts in the ER lumen and continues in the Golgi apparatus. Glycosyltransferases catalyze the addition of sugar molecules or glycosylation of proteins. Usually, these enzymes add sugars to the hydroxyl groups of selected serine or threonine residues to form O-linked glycans or the amino groups of asparagine residues to form N-linked glycans. Different positions on the same polypeptide chain can contain differently linked glycans.
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Carbohydrate Metabolism01:36

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Carbohydrates are polymers composed of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. One gram of carbohydrate can provide four kilo-calories of energy, which makes it the most efficient instant energy source.
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Glycolysis: Preparatory Phase01:21

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In cellular metabolism (the complete breakdown of glucose to extract energy),  glycolysis is the first step. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport, where the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These...
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Hydrolysis01:15

Hydrolysis

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Overview
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which the addition of water breaks down a polymer into its simpler monomer units. For example, peptides break into amino acids, carbohydrates into simple sugars, and DNA into nucleotides. Enzymes often facilitate these processes.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 20, 2026

Techniques for the Evolution of Robust Pentose-fermenting Yeast for Bioconversion of Lignocellulose to Ethanol
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From fructans to difructose dianhydrides.

Xiao Wang1, Shuhuai Yu, Tao Zhang

  • 1State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214122, China.

Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
|November 29, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Difructose dianhydrides (DFAs) are valuable cyclic disaccharides derived from fructans. This review summarizes microorganisms and enzymes, like inulin fructotransferase (IFTase) and levan fructotransferase (LFTase), that produce DFAs, highlighting their comparative properties.

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Determination of Glucan Chain Length Distribution of Glycogen Using the Fluorophore-Assisted Carbohydrate Electrophoresis FACE Method
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Area of Science:

  • Carbohydrate Chemistry
  • Enzymology
  • Microbiology

Background:

  • Fructans, polymers of fructose, serve as dietary fibers and can be converted into high-value products.
  • Difructose dianhydrides (DFAs) are cyclic disaccharides derived from fructans with potential health benefits.
  • Fructan fructotransferases are enzymes responsible for producing DFAs from fructans.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review microorganisms that produce DFAs.
  • To summarize and compare various DFA-producing enzymes, including inulin fructotransferase (IFTase) and levan fructotransferase (LFTase).
  • To detail the production of specific DFAs (DFA I, DFA III, DFA IV) from different fructans.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of studies on DFA-producing microorganisms.
  • Compilation and comparison of research on DFA-producing enzymes.
  • Analysis of enzyme specificity for different fructans (inulin, levan).

Main Results:

  • Identified various microorganisms capable of producing DFAs.
  • Detailed the catalytic activities of IFTase and LFTase in producing specific DFA types.
  • Presented comparative data on the properties and specificities of different DFA-producing enzymes.

Conclusions:

  • DFAs represent a promising class of compounds with potential applications.
  • Understanding the enzymes and microorganisms involved is crucial for optimizing DFA production.
  • Further research into DFA-producing enzymes can lead to novel biotechnological applications.