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Glucose Homeostasis: Regulation of Blood Glucose01:02

Glucose Homeostasis: Regulation of Blood Glucose

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Carbohydrates consumed through foods are converted into glucose, a crucial energy source for the body. In the prandial state, high blood glucose levels stimulate the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. Insulin inhibits hepatic glucose production and stimulates glucose uptake and metabolism by muscle and adipose tissue. The excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles.
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Hypoglycemia and Glucagon01:15

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Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels above 3.5 mM due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine counterregulatory system that effectively prevents acute hypoglycemia, a potentially life-threatening condition. The primary clinical scenarios for hypoglycemia encompass diabetes treatment, inappropriate production of endogenous insulin or insulin-like substances by tumors, and the use of glucose-lowering agents in non-diabetic individuals. Notably, hypoglycemia in the...
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
In addition to accelerating glucose uptake and utilization, insulin has...
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Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
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Glucose Absorption Into the Small Intestine01:26

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Complex carbohydrates consumed cannot be absorbed into the small intestine in their original form. First, they must be hydrolyzed to a monosaccharide form such as glucose or galactose. These monosaccharides are then transported across the intestinal membrane and into the blood via transcellular transport. The intestinal epithelial cells allow the movement of these monosaccharides with a defined 'entry' through membrane transporter proteins present on their apical membrane and...
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Hyperglycemia01:29

Hyperglycemia

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Hyperglycemia is an abnormally high blood glucose level. It is diagnosed by fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL, 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (or OGTT) ≥200 mg/dL, random glucose ≥200 mg/dL with symptoms, or HbA1c ≥6.5%. However, HbA1c results may be unreliable in certain conditions, such as anemia or hemoglobinopathies, and the diagnosis should be confirmed unless classic symptoms are present. Postprandial hyperglycemia is typically considered significant when glucose...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 20, 2026

Author Spotlight: Investigating the Blood Glucose Homeostasis in Murine Brain Using a Cost-Effective Hyperglycemic And Hypoglycemic Clamp Technique
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Expanding the brain glucosensing territory.

Ivan E de Araujo1

  • 1The J.B. Pierce Laboratory, 290 Congress Ave, New Haven, CT 06519, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, Suite 901, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; Department of Physiology, Yale University School of Arts and Sciences, 320 York Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.

Cell Metabolism
|December 4, 2014
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Brain cells that sense glucose levels help maintain normal blood sugar. New research shows cholecystokinin neurons in the parabrachial nucleus act as glucosensors to prevent low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Endocrinology
  • Metabolism

Background:

  • Brain glucosensing neurons are crucial for maintaining normoglycemia.
  • These neurons have primarily been localized to the hypothalamus and hindbrain.
  • The role of other brain regions in glucose sensing remains less understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the role of cholecystokinin-expressing neurons in glucose sensing.
  • To determine if these neurons contribute to counter-regulation of hypoglycemia.
  • To identify novel glucosensing neuronal populations outside of traditional hypothalamic and hindbrain centers.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized rodent models to study neuronal activity.
  • Employed techniques to identify and characterize cholecystokinin-expressing neurons.
  • Assessed the response of these neurons to changes in glucose levels.
  • Investigated the functional role in hypoglycemia counter-regulation.

Main Results:

  • Demonstrated that cholecystokinin-expressing neurons in the parabrachial nucleus function as glucosensors.
  • Showed these neurons are activated by changes in extracellular glucose concentrations.
  • Provided evidence that these neurons play a role in counter-regulating hypoglycemia.

Conclusions:

  • The parabrachial nucleus harbors glucosensing neurons.
  • Cholecystokinin-expressing neurons in the parabrachial nucleus are key players in glucose homeostasis.
  • These findings expand our understanding of the neural circuits involved in defending against hypoglycemia.