Related Experiment Video
Updated: Apr 16, 2026

Brain Morphology of Cannabis Users With or Without Psychosis: A Pilot MRI Study
Published on: August 18, 2020
A survey of substance use for cognitive enhancement by university students in the Netherlands
Kimberly J Schelle1, Bas M J Olthof2, Wesley Reintjes3
1Radboud Honours Academy, Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands ; Department of Industrial Design, Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven, Netherlands.
Background:
Pharmacological cognitive enhancement, using chemicals to change cellular processes in the brain in order to enhance one's cognitive capacities, is an often discussed phenomenon. The prevalence among Dutch university students is unknown.
Methods:
The study set out to achieve the following goals: (1) give an overview of different methods in order to assess the prevalence of use of prescription, illicit and lifestyle drugs for cognitive enhancement (2) investigate whether polydrug use and stress have a relationship with cognitive enhancement substance use (3) assessing opinions about cognitive enhancement prescription drug use. A nationwide survey was conducted among 1572 student respondents of all government supported Dutch universities.
Results:
The most detailed level of analysis-use of specific substances without a prescription and with the intention of cognitive enhancement-shows that prescription drugs, illicit drugs and lifestyle drugs are respectively used by 1.7, 1.3, and 45.6% of the sample. The use of prescription drugs and illicit drugs is low compared to other countries. We have found evidence of polydrug use in relation to cognitive enhancement. A relation between stress and the use of lifestyle drugs for cognitive enhancement was observed. We report the findings of several operationalizations of cognitive enhancement drug use to enable comparison with a wider variety of previous and upcoming research.
Conclusions:
RESULTS of this first study among university students in the Netherlands revealed a low prevalence of cognitive enhancement drug use compared to other countries. Multiple explanations, such as a difference in awareness of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among students, accessibility of drugs in the student population and inclusion criteria of enhancement substances are discussed. We urge enhancement researchers to take the different operationalizations and their effects on the prevalence numbers into account.
More Related Videos
09:26Disruption of Frontal Lobe Neural Synchrony During Cognitive Control by Alcohol Intoxication
Published on: February 6, 2019
07:02A Computerized Test Battery to Study Pharmacodynamic Effects on the Central Nervous System of Cholinergic Drugs in Early Phase Drug Development
Published on: February 11, 2019
Related Concept Videos
Cognitive Enhancers: Cholinesterase Inhibitors and NMDA Receptor Antagonists
CNS Stimulants: Cocaine, Amphetamines and Cannabinoids
Substance Use Disorders Affecting Sleep
Understanding the concepts of physical dependence,...
Stimulants
Cocaine can be administered via snorting, injection, or smoking. It primarily functions by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, resulting in a euphoric high characterized by an intense sensation of happiness and...
An Overview of Psychoactive Drugs
Stimulants such as cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine enhance brain activity, leading to increased alertness, attention, and energy. These drugs typically raise heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. While they can induce feelings of euphoria, their misuse can result in severe health...
Surveys