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Updated: Oct 16, 2026

Application of Long-term cultured Interferon-γ Enzyme-linked Immunospot Assay for Assessing Effector and Memory T Cell Responses in Cattle
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Updated recommendations for the use of typhoid vaccine--Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States,

Brendan R Jackson, Shahed Iqbal, Barbara Mahon

    MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
    |March 27, 2015
    PubMed

    Insights

    Updated immunization practices address enteric fever, including typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. Recommendations cover vaccine information and safety, noting rising drug resistance in Salmonella Typhi and the emergence of Salmonella Paratyphi A.

    Area of Science:

    • Public Health
    • Infectious Diseases
    • Immunology

    Background:

    • Revised recommendations for the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) update 1994 guidelines.
    • Focus on enteric fever epidemiology in the United States.
    • Growing concern over antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To provide updated information on currently available vaccines for enteric fever.
    • To review vaccine safety data.
    • To highlight the evolving epidemiology of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers.

    Main Methods:

    • Review of existing literature and surveillance data.
    • Analysis of trends in drug resistance for Salmonella Typhi.
    • Assessment of the impact of Salmonella Paratyphi A emergence.

    Main Results:

    • Updated information on two available vaccines and their safety profiles.
    • Increased drug resistance observed in Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi.
    • Emergence of Salmonella serotype Paratyphi A, a pathogen not covered by current typhoid vaccines.

    Conclusions:

    • The recommendations emphasize the need for updated vaccination strategies.
    • Growing resistance and new serotypes necessitate ongoing surveillance and vaccine development.
    • Public health efforts must adapt to the changing landscape of enteric fever.

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