Related Experiment Video
Updated: Apr 15, 2026
Measuring 3D In-vivo Shoulder Kinematics using Biplanar Videoradiography
Published on: March 12, 2021
Adaptations of the Shoulder to Overhead Throwing in Youth Athletes
Matthew Michael Astolfi1, Aaron H Struminger1, Todd D Royer1
1Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark.
Context:
The high number of repetitions and high forces associated with overhead throwing lead to anatomical adaptations, such as humeral retrotorsion and posterior-capsule thickness, in elite and professional baseball athletes. However, little is known about the origin and progression of these changes that may account for the increasing trend of chronic shoulder injuries in youth baseball and precipitate subsequent pathologic conditions throughout a young athlete's lifetime.
Objective:
To investigate the relationship of age and upper extremity dominance on humeral retrotorsion, posterior-capsule thickness, and glenohumeral range of motion.
Design:
Cross-sectional study.
Setting:
Research laboratory, local baseball fields, and training facilities.
Patients Or Other Participants:
Thirty-six boys (mean age = 10.94 ± 1.34 years, height = 151.31 ± 12.17 cm, mass = 42.51 ± 10.32 kg) ranging in age from 8 to 12 years and involved in organized youth baseball.
Main Outcome Measure(S):
Diagnostic ultrasound was used to determine humeral retrotorsion and posterior-capsule thickness. Glenohumeral internal rotation and external rotation were measured using a handheld inclinometer. We used 2 × 2 mixed-model analyses of variance to compare the influence of limb dominance and age on the dependent variables of humeral retrotorsion, posterior-capsule thickness, internal rotation, and external rotation.
Results:
The dominant shoulders of youth throwers exhibited less glenohumeral internal rotation but greater humeral retrotorsion, posterior-capsule thickness, and glenohumeral external rotation than the nondominant shoulders. Dominant internal rotation was greater in the 8- to 10-year-old group than in the 11- to 12-year-old group, and results trended toward a difference (F1,33 = 4.12, P = .05). Correlations existed between humeral retrotorsion and range of motion (P < .05).
Conclusions:
The structural adaptations in the dominant shoulders of younger baseball players were similar to adaptations observed in older baseball athletes, indicating that more examination is needed in younger athletes. We are the first to demonstrate greater posterior-capsule thickness in the dominant shoulders of youth baseball athletes.
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