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Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature01:16

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

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The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and  allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form...
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A typical vertebra, with the exception of the sacrum and coccyx, consists of a body, a vertebral arch, and seven different projections termed processes. The anterior portion of the vertebrae, the body, supports about half the body’s weight. The vertebral bodies progressively increase in size and thickness from the cervical region to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The intervertebral discs present between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae firmly unites them, forming a continuous...
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Neurulation is the embryological process which forms the precursors of the central nervous system and occurs after gastrulation has established the three primary cell layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In humans, the majority of this system is formed via primary neurulation, in which the central portion of the ectoderm—originally appearing as a flat sheet of cells—folds upwards and inwards, sealing off to form a hollow neural tube. As development proceeds, the...
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Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification01:29

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Intramembranous ossification is one of the two processes involved in the development of bones within an embryo. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles are formed via this process. During intramembranous ossification, the bones develop directly from sheets of undifferentiated mesenchymal connective tissue.
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The cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord offers a detailed view of its complex structure and function within the central nervous system. At the core of the spinal cord lies the gray matter, characterized by its butterfly or "H"-shaped appearance in cross-section. This central region is enveloped by white matter, with the overall structure divided into symmetrical halves by the dorsal median sulcus and the ventral median fissure.
Gray Matter and its Components
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The development of the vascular system in a fetus is a complex and intricate process that begins as early as 15 to 16 days post-conception. This process starts outside the embryo, specifically in the mesoderm of the yolk sac, chorion, and connecting stalk. Approximately two days later, the formation of blood vessels occurs within the embryo itself.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 12, 2026

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Building the backbone: the development and evolution of vertebral patterning.

Angeleen Fleming1, Marcia G Kishida2, Charles B Kimmel3

  • 1Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EG, UK Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK af425@cam.ac.uk rjk10@cam.ac.uk.

Development (Cambridge, England)
|May 14, 2015
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Vertebral arches appeared early in vertebrates, while centra evolved later. This study suggests centra are homologous in jawed vertebrates, with the notochord aiding vertebral development and mineralization.

Keywords:
BoneNotochordSclerotomeSegmentationVertebrae

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Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary biology
  • Developmental biology
  • Paleontology

Background:

  • The vertebral column, a hallmark of vertebrates, has components like the vertebral body (centrum) and arches.
  • Key questions persist regarding vertebral development, evolution, homology, and the origin of bone-mineralizing cells.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the evolutionary origins and homology of vertebral components.
  • To explore the connection between somite patterning and vertebral development.
  • To understand the developmental role of the notochord in vertebrate skeletal patterning.

Main Methods:

  • Synthesis of evidence from ichthyology, paleontology, and developmental biology.
  • Comparative analysis of vertebral structures across vertebrate lineages.
  • Review of developmental data, particularly in teleosts.

Main Results:

  • Vertebral arch elements predate centra in vertebrate evolution.
  • Centra are proposed as homologous structures within jawed vertebrates.
  • The notochord demonstrates an instructive role in segmental patterning and mineralization in teleosts.

Conclusions:

  • Clarifying the evolutionary history of centra and arches enhances understanding of vertebral patterning.
  • The notochord's contribution to skeletal development and mineralization is significant.
  • This research provides a framework for appreciating the diversity of vertebral development and mineralization mechanisms.