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Updated: Apr 11, 2026
Midface Hypoplasia and Cranial Base Morphology in Syndromic Craniosynostosis: A Comparative Analysis Study Using a Predictive Regression Model
Published on: November 4, 2025
Maternal occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and craniosynostosis among offspring in the
Jacqueline L O'Brien1, Peter H Langlois2, Christina C Lawson3
1Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.
Insights
Maternal occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may be linked to craniosynostosis, a skull birth defect. This study found a moderate association, suggesting PAHs could impact fetal development.
Area of Science:
- Environmental Health
- Teratology
- Occupational Health
Background:
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are environmental pollutants linked to birth defects in animal and human studies.
- Craniosynostosis, a premature fusion of skull sutures, is a significant birth defect with unknown environmental risk factors.
- The potential association between maternal PAH exposure and craniosynostosis has not been previously investigated.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate the association between maternal occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the risk of craniosynostosis.
- To evaluate if occupational PAH exposure during pregnancy is a risk factor for craniosynostosis.
Main Methods:
- A case-control study utilizing data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS) (1997-2002).
- Occupational data was assessed by industrial hygienists who determined probable PAH exposure from 1 month pre-conception through delivery.
- Logistic regression analysis was employed to determine the association between PAH exposure and craniosynostosis, adjusting for maternal age and education.
Main Results:
- A higher prevalence of probable occupational PAH exposure was observed in mothers of infants with craniosynostosis (5.3%) compared to controls (3.7%).
- Maternal occupational exposure to PAHs was associated with an increased odds of craniosynostosis (OR=1.75, 95% CI: 1.01-3.05), particularly during the first trimester.
- Subgroup analysis for sagittal craniosynostosis did not yield statistically significant results due to limited case numbers.
Conclusions:
- Findings suggest a moderate association between maternal occupational exposure to PAHs and craniosynostosis.
- Further research is warranted to elucidate specific susceptibility factors and the role of PAHs in different craniosynostosis subtypes.
Background:
Evidence in animal models and humans suggests that exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) may lead to birth defects. To our knowledge, this relationship has not been evaluated for craniosynostosis, a birth defect characterized by the premature closure of sutures in the skull. We conducted a case-control study to examine associations between maternal occupational exposure to PAHs and craniosynostosis.
Methods:
We used data from craniosynostosis cases and control infants in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS) with estimated delivery dates from 1997 to 2002. Industrial hygienists reviewed occupational data from the computer-assisted telephone interview and assigned a yes/no rating of probable occupational PAH exposure for each job from 1 month before conception through delivery. We used logistic regression to assess the association between occupational exposure to PAHs and craniosynostosis.
Results:
The prevalence of exposure was 5.3% in case mothers (16/300) and 3.7% in control mothers (107/2,886). We observed a positive association between exposure to PAHs during the 1 month before conception through the third month of pregnancy and craniosynostosis (odds ratio [OR] = 1.75; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-3.05) after adjusting for maternal age and maternal education. The number of cases for each craniosynostosis subtype limited subtype analyses to sagittal craniosynostosis; the odds ratio remained similar (OR = 1.76, 95% CI, 0.82-3.75), but was not significant.
Conclusion:
Our findings support a moderate association between maternal occupational exposure to PAHs and craniosynostosis. Additional work is needed to better characterize susceptibility and the role PAHs may play on specific craniosynostosis subtypes.
