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C4 Pathway and CAM01:27

C4 Pathway and CAM

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Most plants use the C3 pathway for carbon fixation. However, some plants, such as sugar cane, corn, and cacti that grow in hot conditions, use alternative pathways to fix carbon and conserve energy loss due to photorespiration. Photorespiration is the process that occurs when the oxygen concentration is high. Under such conditions, the rubisco enzyme in the Calvin cycle binds O2 instead of CO2, which halts photosynthesis and consumes energy.
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The present-day mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes have retained some of the characteristics of their ancestral prokaryotes and also have acquired new attributes during their evolution within eukaryotic cells. Like prokaryotic genomes, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes neither bind with histone-like proteins nor show complex packaging into chromosome-like structures, as observed in eukaryotes. Unlike mitotic cell divisions observed in eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts...
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Photosynthesis represents a fundamental biological process that transformed Earth's atmosphere and paved the way for complex life. Emerging roughly 3.4–3.8 billion years ago, the earliest photosynthetic organisms harnessed light energy to produce organic compounds. These anoxygenic phototrophs used electron donors like hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) or ferrous iron (Fe²⁺), rather than water, and did not release molecular oxygen (O₂) as a byproduct. Various groups, including...
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Chemolithotrophs are microorganisms that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic molecules such as hydrogen gas (H₂), ammonia (NH₃), reduced sulfur compounds (H₂S, S²⁻), and ferrous iron (Fe²⁺). Unlike heterotrophic organisms that rely on organic carbon, chemolithotrophs transfer electrons from these inorganic donors to the electron transport chain (ETC), generating a proton motive force (PMF) that drives ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation.
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Ribulose 1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) is a critical enzyme that catalyzes carbon dioxide assimilation during photosynthesis. However, it is an inefficient enzyme, having an extremely slow catalytic rate. A typical enzyme can process about a thousand molecules per second; however, RuBisCo fixes only around three-carbon dioxides per second. Photosynthetic cells compensate for this slow rate by synthesizing very high amounts of RuBisCo, making it the most abundant single...
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Carbon dioxide fixation in prokaryotes enables the assimilation of inorganic carbon into organic molecules, supporting biosynthetic pathways, sustaining ecosystems, and contributing to the global carbon cycle. It also has industrial applications in carbon capture and bioproduct synthesis. Autotrophic organisms rely on this process to utilize CO₂ as a carbon source in diverse environments.The Calvin CycleThe Calvin cycle is the most widespread carbon fixation mechanism, primarily used by...
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Insights into C4 metabolism from comparative deep sequencing.

Steven J Burgess1, Julian M Hibberd1

  • 1Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK.

Current Opinion in Plant Biology
|June 9, 2015
PubMed
Summary

C4 photosynthesis limits photorespiration by suppressing an enzyme

Area of Science:

  • Plant biology and evolutionary genetics.

Background:

  • C4 photosynthesis is a complex trait that evolved independently multiple times.
  • Most C4 plant lineages lack sequenced genomes, hindering genetic studies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the genetic and regulatory underpinnings of C4 photosynthesis evolution.
  • To understand the role of parallel and exaptive evolution in C4 trait acquisition.

Main Methods:

  • Transcriptomic analyses comparing C3 and C4 plants.
  • Development of mathematical models for C4 evolution.
  • Examination of cis- and trans-regulatory elements.

Main Results:

  • Transcriptomics revealed differences in gene expression between C3 and C4 leaves.
  • Novel components of C4 metabolism were identified.

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  • Evidence suggests parallel evolution of structural and regulatory genes.
  • Initial C4 trait acquisition may involve exaptation from non-photosynthetic processes.

    • Conclusions:

    • C4 photosynthesis evolution is a complex, convergent process.
    • Both structural genes and regulatory elements contribute to C4 traits.
    • Exaptation likely played a role in the initial stages of C4 evolution.