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Related Concept Videos

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The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore information that is inconsistent with our expectations. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Have you ever fallen prey to the confirmation bias, either as the source or target of such bias?
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Correspondence bias, also referred to as the fundamental attribution error, describes the tendency to attribute another person’s behavior to internal characteristics rather than situational influences. This cognitive bias leads individuals to overlook external factors that may be influencing actions, thereby fostering potentially inaccurate assessments of others’ intentions and dispositions.Empirical Evidence for Correspondence BiasResearch has consistently demonstrated the...
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Cognitive bias results from limitations in thinking and information processing, leading to systematic errors in judgment. Conversely, motivational bias stems from personal desires or emotions, causing distortions in perception to align with self-interest. Motivational bias influences how individuals perceive and attribute causes to events, often shaped by personal needs, goals, and self-esteem preservation. This bias can distort judgment, leading to inaccurate assessments of success, failure,...
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Unrealistic optimism bias is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of positive outcomes. This cognitive bias makes individuals believe they are less likely to experience failures, setbacks, or risks and more likely to succeed than others. For example, people may assume they are less prone to health issues, accidents, or financial struggles than their peers, even when they share similar risk factors.One key component of this bias is the above-average effect, where individuals perceive...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 6, 2026

Dissociation of the Confounding Influences of Expectancy and Integrative Difficulty Residing in Anomalous Sentences in Event-related Potential Studies
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The closed-mindedness that wasn't: need for structure and expectancy-inconsistent information.

Markus Kemmelmeier1

  • 1Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Program in Social Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno NV, USA.

Frontiers in Psychology
|July 21, 2015
PubMed
Summary

Individuals high in need for structure may not be closed-minded. Their information processing depends on task demands, potentially leading to better recall of unexpected information and moderated judgments.

Keywords:
categorical processingexpectanciesintolerance of ambiguityneed for closureneed for structureperson memorysocial-cognition

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Area of Science:

  • Social psychology
  • Cognitive science
  • Information processing

Background:

  • Previous research linked high need for structure to closed-mindedness.
  • This link was based on assumptions about information processing and ignored individual differences.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if high need for structure always leads to closed-mindedness.
  • To examine the role of categorical processing and information distribution.

Main Methods:

  • Person memory paradigm used across four experiments.
  • Manipulated the optionality and distribution of category-relevant information.

Main Results:

  • When categorical processing was optional, high need-for-structure individuals showed superior recall for expectancy-inconsistent information.
  • Information inconsistent with expectancies influenced judgment, leading to moderation.
  • Recall of consistent vs. inconsistent information depended on the majority information type.
  • Information attention varied with distribution for high need-for-structure individuals.

Conclusions:

  • High need for structure does not inherently equate to closed-mindedness.
  • Task affordances critically influence how individuals process information and make judgments.
  • Individual differences in processing, not just need for structure, shape outcomes.