Whole organism blood stage vaccines against malaria

Despite a century of research focused on the development and implementation of effective control strategies, infection with the malaria parasite continues to result in significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. An effective malaria vaccine is considered by many to be the definitive solution. Yet, after decades of research, we are still without a vaccine that is capable of inducing robust, long lasting protection in naturally exposed individuals. Extensive sub-unit vaccine development focused on the blood stage of the malaria parasite has thus far yielded disappointing results. There is now a renewed focus on whole parasite vaccine strategies, particularly as they may overcome some of the inherent weaknesses deemed to be associated with the sub-unit approach. This review discusses the whole parasite vaccine strategy focusing on the blood stage of the malaria parasite, with an emphasis on recent advances and challenges in the development of killed and live attenuated vaccines.