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Related Concept Videos

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery01:27

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery

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Insulin preparations are categorized by their duration of action into short-acting and long-acting types. Two strategies are used to modify insulin's absorption and pharmacokinetic profile: slowing the absorption post-subcutaneous injection, or altering human insulin's amino acid sequence or protein structure. These changes retain the insulin's ability to bind to the insulin receptor, but alter its behavior in solution or after injection.
Short-acting insulins are divided into...
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Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects01:16

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Insulin-replacement therapy usually includes both long-acting insulin (basal) and short-acting insulin (to cater to postprandial needs). In a diverse group of type 1 diabetes patients, the average daily insulin dose is typically 0.5-0.7 units/kg body weight. However, obese patients and pubertal adolescents may need more due to insulin resistance.
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
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Oral Hypoglycemic Agents: Glinides01:06

Oral Hypoglycemic Agents: Glinides

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Repaglinide (Prandin) and Nateglinide (Starlix), known as glinides, are oral insulin secretagogues that stimulate insulin release from pancreatic β cells by closing the ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP channel). Repaglinide controls insulin release from pancreatic β cells by managing potassium efflux. It shares two binding sites with sulfonylureas and also has a unique site, indicating overlapping mechanisms of action. With a rapid onset and a 4-7 hour duration, it effectively...
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Inhaled Medications01:23

Inhaled Medications

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Inhaled medications are crucial for managing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. They are essential for effective treatment and control, ensuring optimal respiratory health and well-being. Inhaled medication delivers drugs directly to the lungs, providing a rapid onset of action and reducing systemic side effects compared to oral or injectable medications. Three primary types of inhalation devices are used to administer these medications: nebulizers, metered-dose inhalers...
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Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
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Production of Pharmaceuticals01:30

Production of Pharmaceuticals

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Industrial insulin production uses genetically engineered E. coli expressing a proinsulin gene controlled by a tryptophan promoter and containing a methionine linker for later cleavage. The cells also carry ampicillin resistance for selective growth. Seed cultures are stored at −80 °C and production begins by thawing a small amount to inoculate starter cultures, which are progressively scaled to a 50,000-L bioreactor. In the bioreactor, E. coli grow in nutrient-rich media under...
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Updated: Mar 30, 2026

Dry Powder and Nebulized Aerosol Inhalation of Pharmaceuticals Delivered to Mice Using a Nose-only Exposure System
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Technosphere insulin: inhaled prandial insulin.

Tracy L Setji1, Beatrice D Hong1, Mark N Feinglos1

  • 1a Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology , Duke University Medical Center , Durham , NC , USA.

Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy
|November 17, 2015
PubMed
Summary

Technosphere insulin (TI), an inhaled option, offers rapid absorption and shorter action than injections for diabetes management. It shows comparable efficacy with reduced hypoglycemia risk, though cough is a noted side effect.

Keywords:
AffinityAfrezzaExuberaGen2MedToneinhaled insulininsulinprandialtechnosphere

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Area of Science:

  • Pharmacology
  • Endocrinology
  • Pulmonology

Background:

  • Insulin therapy is crucial for diabetes mellitus management.
  • Barriers to traditional subcutaneous insulin injections exist.
  • Technosphere insulin (TI) offers a novel inhaled alternative.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide an overview of technosphere insulin.
  • To discuss its pharmacokinetics, clinical efficacy, safety, and tolerability.

Main Methods:

  • Review of pharmacokinetic data.
  • Analysis of clinical efficacy studies.
  • Assessment of safety and tolerability profiles.

Main Results:

  • TI demonstrates faster absorption and shorter duration than subcutaneous insulin.
  • Non-inferiority to subcutaneous regimens with less hypoglycemia.
  • Cough is the most common, usually mild and transient, side effect.

Conclusions:

  • TI may be suitable for patients avoiding daily injections or experiencing postprandial hypoglycemia.
  • Pulmonary function monitoring is recommended; contraindicated in chronic lung disease.
  • Long-term lung cancer risk is under ongoing surveillance.