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Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
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The muscles of the forearm that move the wrist, hand, and digits are numerous and diverse. They can be classified into two groups based on their location and function — the anterior and posterior compartment muscles.
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The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 29, 2026

Modified Long Head of Biceps Tendon Rerouting and Fixation as Partial Capsular Reconstruction for Massive Irreparable Rotator Cuff Tears
07:10

Modified Long Head of Biceps Tendon Rerouting and Fixation as Partial Capsular Reconstruction for Massive Irreparable Rotator Cuff Tears

Published on: March 6, 2026

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Proximal Biceps Tendon and Rotator Cuff Tears.

Mandeep S Virk1, Brian J Cole2

  • 1Division of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, NYU-Langone Medical Center, NYU-Hospital for Joint Diseases, 301 East 17th Street, New York, NY 10003, USA.

Clinics in Sports Medicine
|November 29, 2015
PubMed
Summary

The long head of biceps tendon (LHBT) is often affected in rotator cuff tears, causing shoulder pain. Addressing LHBT issues with tenotomy or tenodesis can effectively relieve pain and improve outcomes after rotator cuff repair.

Keywords:
Biceps tenodesisBiceps tenotomyRotator cuff tears

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Arthroscopic Management of Massive Irreparable Rotator Cuff Tears: Whole Rotator Cable Reconstruction Using Proximal Biceps Tendon Autograft
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Knotless Independent Double-Row Repair and Biceps Augmentation for Anterosuperior Rotator Cuff Tears
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Area of Science:

  • Orthopedic Surgery
  • Sports Medicine
  • Shoulder Arthroscopy

Background:

  • The long head of biceps tendon (LHBT) is frequently implicated in rotator cuff tears, leading to anterior shoulder pain.
  • Pathological changes in the LHBT, including hypertrophy, contracture, delamination, tears, and instability, are common with rotator cuff tears.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To highlight the significance of LHBT pathology in rotator cuff tears.
  • To emphasize the impact of untreated LHBT disorders on shoulder pain and patient satisfaction post-repair.
  • To evaluate the efficacy of LHBT tenotomy or tenodesis for pain relief.

Main Methods:

  • Review of common macroscopic pathological findings of the LHBT in patients with rotator cuff tears.
  • Analysis of the consequences of failing to address LHBT disorders.
  • Assessment of the outcomes of LHBT tenotomy and tenodesis in managing shoulder pain associated with rotator cuff tears.

Main Results:

  • LHBT pathology is a frequent comorbidity in rotator cuff tears, contributing to anterior shoulder pain.
  • Ignoring LHBT disorders can lead to persistent pain and dissatisfaction after rotator cuff repair.
  • Tenotomy or tenodesis of the LHBT provides effective pain relief for patients with reparable and selected irreparable rotator cuff tears.

Conclusions:

  • LHBT pathology is a critical factor in anterior shoulder pain associated with rotator cuff tears.
  • Surgical management of the LHBT, through tenotomy or tenodesis, is crucial for optimizing outcomes in rotator cuff repair.
  • Addressing LHBT disorders improves pain and patient satisfaction in the context of rotator cuff pathology.