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Related Concept Videos

Teeth01:15

Teeth

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The formation of teeth, also known as odontogenesis, is a complex process that begins in utero, around the sixth week of embryonic development. There are three stages to this process: the bud stage, the cap stage, and the bell stage.
In the bud stage, the tooth germ (an aggregation of cells) starts to form in the developing jawbone. During the cap stage, the tooth germ differentiates into enamel organ, dental papilla, and dental sac, which will later develop into the tooth's enamel, dentin...
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ortho–para-Directing Deactivators: Halogens01:24

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Halogens are ortho–para directors. They are more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, as ring substituents, they can withdraw electrons through the inductive effect and deactivate the aromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution. Halogens also have an electron-donating resonance effect on the ring, which influences the orientation of the incoming electrophile. If an electrophile attacks at the ortho or the para position, the halogen donates electrons and stabilizes the intermediate...
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ortho–para-Directing Activators: –CH3, –OH, –⁠NH2, –OCH301:11

ortho–para-Directing Activators: –CH3, –OH, –⁠NH2, –OCH3

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All ortho–para directors, excluding halogens, are activating groups. These groups donate electrons to the ring, making the ring carbons electron-rich. Consequently, the reactivity of the aromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution increases. For instance, the nitration of anisole is about 10,000 times faster than the nitration of benzene. The electron-donating effect of the methoxy group in anisole activates the ortho and para positions on the ring and stabilizes the corresponding...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 28, 2026

Author Spotlight: 3D Movement Assessment of Maxillary Posterior Teeth in Clear Aligner Treatment
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Clear aligners for orthodontic treatment?

Hanieh Javidi1, Elizabeth Graham1

  • 1School of Clinical Dentistry, Claremont Crescent, Sheffield, UK.

Evidence-Based Dentistry
|December 19, 2015
PubMed
Summary

This review found that most studies on clear aligner orthodontic treatment had methodological issues, such as small sample sizes and bias. The overall quality was insufficient for evidence-based conclusions regarding clear aligner effectiveness.

Area of Science:

  • Orthodontics
  • Biomaterials Science
  • Dental Public Health

Background:

  • Clear aligners are increasingly popular for orthodontic treatment.
  • Evidence-based guidelines for their use are needed.
  • Systematic reviews are crucial for evaluating treatment efficacy and safety.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To systematically review the existing literature on orthodontic treatment using clear aligners.
  • To assess the quality of evidence and identify methodological limitations in current studies.
  • To determine the current state of evidence regarding the effectiveness of clear aligners.

Main Methods:

  • A comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple databases including PubMed/Medline, Embase, CENTRAL, Web of Knowledge, SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and LILACS.

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  • Clinical prospective and retrospective studies involving patients over 15 treated with clear aligners were selected.
  • Data extraction and quality assessment were performed independently by two reviewers using the Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (SBU) grading system.

    • Main Results:

    • Eleven studies with a total of 480 patients were included: 2 randomized controlled trials, 5 prospective, and 4 retrospective studies.
    • Six studies were rated as moderate quality, while the remaining five were of limited quality.
    • Common methodological limitations included small sample sizes, bias, confounding variables, lack of blinding, and inadequate statistical analysis.

    Conclusions:

    • The majority of reviewed studies on clear aligner orthodontic treatment suffer from significant methodological weaknesses.
    • These limitations, including bias and insufficient statistical methods, prevent the drawing of reliable, evidence-based conclusions.
    • Further high-quality research is required to establish the efficacy and safety of clear aligner therapy.