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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 14, 2026

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

Interpretation of thyroid function tests.

¹Department of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.

Disease-A-Month : DM

|August 1, 1989

Summary

Radioimmunoassays have advanced thyroid disease management and knowledge. These tests, including ultrasensitive thyrotropin assays, aid in diagnosing common thyroid disorders but can be misleading in chronically ill patients.

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Clinical Diagnostics
Medical Laboratory Science

Background:

Radioimmunoassays have significantly advanced the understanding of thyroid physiology over two decades.
Their application in neonatal screening for congenital hypothyroidism has notably decreased mental retardation rates globally.

Purpose of the Study:

To outline the utility of immunoassays and related diagnostic tools for general physicians in managing common thyroid disorders.
To highlight the potential of ultrasensitive thyrotropin assays as a universal thyroid function test.

Main Methods:

Utilizing physical examination combined with immunoassays for thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and thyrotropin.
Employing thyroglobulin and thyroid microsomal antibodies for diagnostic clarity.
Incorporating ultrasensitive thyrotropin assays, thyroid scans, and fine-needle aspiration biopsy for comprehensive diagnosis.

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In vivo Characterization of Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Effects via Thyroid Hormone Action Indicator Mouse

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Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

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Last Updated: Jul 14, 2026

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

In vivo Characterization of Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Effects via Thyroid Hormone Action Indicator Mouse

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Published on: October 6, 2023

Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

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Main Results:

Judicious use of immunoassays enables confident diagnosis of most common thyroid disorders by general physicians.
Ultrasensitive thyrotropin assays show promise as a universal thyroid function test.
Chronic illness can significantly affect the accuracy of thyroxine and triiodothyronine tests in hospitalized patients.

Conclusions:

Immunoassays and related techniques provide powerful tools for diagnosing and managing thyroid diseases.
Physicians can effectively delineate common thyroid disorders using a combination of clinical assessment and laboratory tests.
Awareness of the limitations of thyroid hormone assays in ill patients is crucial for accurate diagnosis.