The effects of xenobiotics on the structure and function of thyroid follicular and C-cells

The mammalian thyroid gland is composed of 2 distinct endocrine cell populations concerned with the synthesis of 2 different classes of hormones. Follicular cells secrete the metabolically active iodothyronines whereas the C-(parafollicular) cells are concerned with the production of calcitonin, a hormone that influences blood levels of calcium and phosphorus, and bone cell metabolism. The synthesis of metabolic thyroid hormones is different than in other endocrine glands because the final assembly of hormone occurs within the follicular lumen. This extracellular synthesis of thyroid hormones is made possible by thyroglobulin, a glycoprotein synthesized by follicular cells. The secretion of thyroid hormones under the influence of pituitary thyrotrophin (TSH) from stores in the luminal colloid is initiated by elongation of microvilli and formation of pseudopods. FD&C Red No. 3 is a tetraiodinated derivative of fluorescein which in lifetime studies increases the incidence of thyroid follicular cell adenomas in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The striking changes in circulating levels of thyroid hormones and morphologic evidence of follicular cell stimulation are the result of alterations in the peripheral metabolism of thyroxine. An inhibition by FD&C Red No. 3 of 5'-deiodinase in the liver and kidney would explain the lower serum triiodothyronine (T3) levels. The pituitary, sensing the lowered circulating levels of T3, increased the secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone which resulted in the morphologic evidence of follicular cell stimulation in the long-term studies. Other xenobiotics increase the incidence of thyroid tumors in rodents by a direct effect on the thyroid gland to disrupt 1 of 3 or more possible steps in the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones. Physiologic perturbations alone, such as iodine deficiency or partial thyroidectomy, can disrupt thyroid hormone economy in rodents and, if sustained, increase the development of thyroid tumors. The wide variety of drugs, chemicals, and physiologic perturbations which increase thyroid tumor development appear to act through a secondary (indirect) mechanism to promote tumor development by causing a long-standing hypersecretion of thyroid stimulating hormone. Nodular and/or diffuse hyperplasia of C-cells occurs with advancing age in many strains of laboratory rats and in response to long-term hypercalcemia in certain animal species and human beings. Focal or diffuse hyperplasia often precedes the development of C-cell neoplasms. Radiation and the feeding of diets high in vitamin D resulting in hypercalcemia have been reported to increase the incidence of C-cell tumors in rats.