Transducer mechanisms for optical biosensors. Part 1: The chemistry of transduction

The first stage of optical biosensor transduction involves a chemical interaction between the analyte and an indicator phase to produce an optically detectable signal. This stage is critical because it determines stability, selectivity and sensitivity as well as establishing the wavelengths required for the optical measurement. Several types of analyte/indicator interaction are possible. Direct indicators such as those used in optical pH sensors are in equilibrium with the analyte in the sample. They may be used for continuous measurements and can be coupled to the sensing of other analytes such as acidic and basic gases like carbon dioxide and ammonia. Integrating reagents react irreversibly with analyte and require that the rate of product formation be measured. Sensors based on catalysis by an immobilised enzyme involve a steady-state measurement of optically detectable substrate or product. High selectivity can be achieved using antibodies as reagents and basing sensing on competitive binding; however, response time is a serious problem. A variety of methods have been employed to immobilize the indicator phase including adsorption on solid substrates, covalent bonding to a substrate and confinement by membranes permeable to analyte but not to indicator.