Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Trial and Error and Algorithm01:12

Trial and Error and Algorithm

480
A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have distinct action plans. Trial and error involves trying different solutions until one works. For instance, to fix a broken printer, you might check ink levels, ensure the paper tray isn't jammed, and verify the printer's connection to your laptop. This method can be time-consuming but is commonly used. Thomas Edison, for example, used trial and error to find a suitable filament for the light...
480
Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory01:29

Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory

877
Attribution theory plays a crucial role in social psychology, helping to explain how individuals interpret the causes of behavior. One prominent model within this field is Harold Kelley's covariation theory, which provides a systematic approach to determining whether internal traits or external circumstances drive a person's actions. The model posits that individuals rely on three key types of information—consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness—to make these judgments.Consensus:...
877
Crossover Experiments01:16

Crossover Experiments

4.7K
Crossover experiments, also called the repeated-measurements design, is a study design in which all experimental units are exposed to all treatments in different periods. Crossover experiments are generally used in psychology, the pharmaceutical industry, agriculture, and medicine.
Crossover designs are performed even with smaller sample sizes since the samples can act as their controls. These are better than simple randomized trials since patients are exposed to all the treatments.
4.7K
Experimental Designs01:16

Experimental Designs

18.5K
An experimental design is a systematic process that allows researchers to evaluate the relationship between dependent and independent variables. There are three widely used types of experimental design - pre-experimental design, true experimental design, and quasi-experimental design. In pre-experimental design, the researcher compares the data before and after some interventions or treatments. The true-experimental design has more than one purposefully created group, a commonly measured...
18.5K
Cognitive Learning01:21

Cognitive Learning

1.5K
Cognitive learning is based on purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning.
E. C. Tolman's theory of purposive behavior emphasizes that much behavior is goal-directed. He argued that to understand behavior, we must look at the entire sequence of actions leading to a goal. For instance, high school students study hard, not just due to past reinforcement but also to achieve the goal of getting into a good college.
Tolman introduced the idea that behavior is influenced by...
1.5K
Randomized Experiments01:13

Randomized Experiments

9.3K
The randomization process involves assigning study participants randomly to experimental or control groups based on their probability of being equally assigned. Randomization is meant to eliminate selection bias and balance known and unknown confounding factors so that the control group is similar to the treatment group as much as possible. A computer program and a random number generator can be used to assign participants to groups in a way that minimizes bias.
Simple randomization
Simple...
9.3K

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Coordinated Representational Drift Across the Mouse Cortex.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2026
Same author

Hippocampal representations differentiate reactive and anticipatory responses during foraging under threat.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2026
Same author

Individual differences in decision-making shape how mesolimbic dopamine regulates choice confidence and change-of-mind.

Nature neuroscience·2025
Same author

Opposing, multiplexed information in lateral and ventral orbitofrontal cortex guides sequential foraging decisions in rats.

Neuron·2025
Same author

Opposing, multiplexed information in lateral and ventral orbitofrontal cortex guides sequential foraging decisions in rats.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2025
Same author

Beyond reward learning deficits: Exploration-exploitation instability reveals computational heterogeneity in value-based decision making in early psychosis.

medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences·2025
Same journal

Brain-spleen axis regulates learned fear.

Nature reviews. Neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Acetylcholine: a candidate substrate for hippocampal predictive learning?

Nature reviews. Neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Astrocytes viewed through the lens of their proteomes and subproteomes.

Nature reviews. Neuroscience·2026
Same journal

m<sup>6</sup>A in RNA: a key regulator of brain development, function and disease.

Nature reviews. Neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Non-invasive deep-brain neuromodulation by transcranial radio frequency stimulation.

Nature reviews. Neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Heading into the wild: setting the course to natural neuroscience.

Nature reviews. Neuroscience·2026
See all related articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 25, 2026

Using a Virtual Reality Walking Simulator to Investigate Pedestrian Behavior
06:38

Using a Virtual Reality Walking Simulator to Investigate Pedestrian Behavior

Published on: June 9, 2020

5.4K

Vicarious trial and error.

A David Redish1

  • 1Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.

Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
|February 20, 2016
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Rats exhibit "vicarious trial and error" (VTE) behavior when making decisions, pausing to consider options. This behavior, involving hippocampal place cells, parallels human deliberation, working memory, and mental time travel.

More Related Videos

The Innovation Arena: A Method for Comparing Innovative Problem-Solving Across Groups
14:14

The Innovation Arena: A Method for Comparing Innovative Problem-Solving Across Groups

Published on: May 13, 2022

6.4K
Driving Simulation in the Clinic: Testing Visual Exploratory Behavior in Daily Life Activities in Patients with Visual Field Defects
11:12

Driving Simulation in the Clinic: Testing Visual Exploratory Behavior in Daily Life Activities in Patients with Visual Field Defects

Published on: September 18, 2012

17.9K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Mar 25, 2026

Using a Virtual Reality Walking Simulator to Investigate Pedestrian Behavior
06:38

Using a Virtual Reality Walking Simulator to Investigate Pedestrian Behavior

Published on: June 9, 2020

5.4K
The Innovation Arena: A Method for Comparing Innovative Problem-Solving Across Groups
14:14

The Innovation Arena: A Method for Comparing Innovative Problem-Solving Across Groups

Published on: May 13, 2022

6.4K
Driving Simulation in the Clinic: Testing Visual Exploratory Behavior in Daily Life Activities in Patients with Visual Field Defects
11:12

Driving Simulation in the Clinic: Testing Visual Exploratory Behavior in Daily Life Activities in Patients with Visual Field Defects

Published on: September 18, 2012

17.9K

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Cognitive Science
  • Animal Behavior

Background:

  • Rats display 'vicarious trial and error' (VTE) behavior at decision points, pausing to deliberate choices.
  • This behavior was historically interpreted as 'thinking about the future'.
  • Recent research links VTE to neural mechanisms underlying future outcome representation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the neural underpinnings of decision-making processes in rats.
  • To investigate the parallels between rat VTE and human cognitive functions.
  • To understand the role of hippocampal place cells in deliberative behavior.

Main Methods:

  • Observation of rat behavior at decision points.
  • Electrophysiological recordings of hippocampal place cells during VTE.
  • Comparative analysis of rat VTE with human cognitive processes.

Main Results:

  • Hippocampal place cells exhibit alternating representations of potential paths during VTE.
  • VTE behavior in rats shows direct parallels to human deliberative decision-making.
  • Evidence suggests VTE involves working memory and mental time travel.

Conclusions:

  • VTE in rats provides a model for understanding neural mechanisms of future outcome representation.
  • Rat VTE behavior offers insights into human decision-making, working memory, and mental time travel.
  • The study highlights the continuity of cognitive processes across species.