Biosynthesis and physiologic effects of estrogen and pathophysiologic effects of estrogen deficiency: a review

Women are increasingly spending more years of their lives beyond the menopause, which places them at risk for various health problems due to estrogen deficiency. Tissues and organs with estrogen receptors such as the ovaries, endometrium, vaginal epithelium, hypothalamus, urinary tract, and skin are directly affected by a lack of estrogen production. Other tissues in which estrogen receptors have not been consistently identified, such as bone, are also affected by waning levels of estrogen. The postmenopausal woman frequently experiences neuroendocrine changes (hot flashes) that often dissipate over time and a steady rise in her risk of cardiovascular disease, which approaches that in men of comparable age.