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Related Concept Videos

The Thyroid Gland01:23

The Thyroid Gland

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The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...
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Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones01:20

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

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Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...
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Functions of Thyroid Hormones01:18

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

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The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...
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The Parathyroid Glands00:59

The Parathyroid Glands

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The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by...
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Hormones and Bone Tissue01:17

Hormones and Bone Tissue

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The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones, which interact with the skeletal system. These hormones control bone growth, maintain bone once it is formed, and remodel it.
Hormones That Influence Osteoblasts and/or Maintain the Matrix
Several hormones are necessary for controlling bone growth and maintaining the bone matrix. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), which, as its name implies, controls bone growth. This happens in several ways: first, it triggers chondrocyte...
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Adrenal Gland Disorders01:27

Adrenal Gland Disorders

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Adrenal gland disorders manifest when the production of adrenal hormones deviates from the norm, resulting in either excessive or insufficient concentrations.
Adrenal insufficiency, characterized by insufficient cortisol and aldosterone production, leads to conditions like Addison's disease. This disorder, affecting the adrenal cortex, exhibits symptoms such as skin bronzing, dehydration, low blood pressure, fatigue, and weight loss. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a genetic ailment causing...
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Updated: Mar 25, 2026

Author Spotlight: Integrating Ultrasound Imaging with Biochemical Markers for Thyroid Disease Diagnosis
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Five Top Stories in Thyroid Pathology.

Parnian Ahmadi Moghaddam1, Renu Virk2, Ali Sakhdari1

  • 1From the Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Memorial Medical Center, Worcester (Drs Moghaddam, Sakhdari, Cosar, and Khan);

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Diagnosing thyroid tumors, especially those with a follicular pattern, can be challenging. Advanced techniques like immunohistochemistry and molecular testing are increasingly used alongside traditional histomorphology for accurate thyroid cancer diagnosis.

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Oncology
  • Pathology

Background:

  • Thyroid carcinoma is the most common endocrine malignancy, representing about 1% of US cancers.
  • Over 35,000 new cases are diagnosed annually, with over 450,000 individuals living with the disease.
  • Certain thyroid tumor types, particularly those with a follicular pattern, present diagnostic challenges.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the morphologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular characteristics of thyroid tumors.
  • To examine the clinicopathologic features of papillary and medullary microcarcinoma, including differentiation from C-cell hyperplasia.
  • To discuss immunoglobulin (Ig) G4-related thyroid disease and its implications.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of peer-reviewed publications.
  • Analysis of institutional case experience.

Main Results:

  • Histomorphologic evaluation remains the primary diagnostic method for most thyroid diseases.
  • Immunohistochemistry and molecular diagnostics, including next-generation sequencing, are increasingly valuable ancillary tools.
  • Understanding the nuances of microcarcinomas and IgG4-related thyroid disease is crucial for comprehensive diagnosis.

Conclusions:

  • Histomorphology is the cornerstone of thyroid disease diagnosis.
  • Ancillary studies like immunohistochemistry and molecular testing are becoming essential complements.
  • Accurate diagnosis relies on integrating various diagnostic modalities.