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Oxidations of Aldehydes and Ketones to Carboxylic Acids01:15

Oxidations of Aldehydes and Ketones to Carboxylic Acids

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Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones results in the formation of carboxylic acids. Aldehydes, bearing hydrogen next to the carbonyl group, are easily oxidized compared to ketones. This is because an aldehydic proton can easily be abstracted during oxidation.
Aldehydes readily undergo oxidation in strong oxidizing agents such as potassium permanganate and chromic acid. The oxidation can also be carried out using mild oxidizing agents such as silver oxide. In fact, aldehydes can be easily oxidized...
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Oxidation of Alcohols02:37

Oxidation of Alcohols

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In this lesson, the oxidation of alcohols is discussed in depth. The various reagents used for oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols are detailed, and their mechanism of action is provided.
The process of oxidation in a chemical reaction is observed in any of the three forms:
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Radical Oxidation of Allylic and Benzylic Alcohols01:21

Radical Oxidation of Allylic and Benzylic Alcohols

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Activated manganese(IV) oxide can selectively oxidize allylic and benzylic alcohols via a radical intermediate mechanism. Primary allylic alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes, while secondary allylic alcohols yield ketones. The redox reaction of potassium permanganate with an Mn(II) salt such as manganese sulfate (under either alkaline or acidic conditions), followed by thorough drying, yields the oxidizing agent: activated MnO2. While MnO2 is insoluble in the solvents used for the reaction, the...
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Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Alcohols, Alkenes, and Alkynes01:33

Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones from Alcohols, Alkenes, and Alkynes

7.2K
Aldehydes and ketones are prepared from alcohols, alkenes, and alkynes via different reaction pathways. Alcohols are the most commonly used substrates for synthesizing aldehydes and ketones. The conversion of alcohol to aldehyde, which involves the oxidation process, depends on the class of the alcohol used and the strength of the oxidizing agent. For instance, primary alcohol will form an aldehyde when treated with a weak oxidizing agent; however, it gets over-oxidized to a carboxylic acid in...
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Base-Catalyzed Aldol Addition Reaction01:08

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As depicted in Figure 1, base-catalyzed aldol addition involves adding two carbonyl compounds in aqueous sodium hydroxide to form a β-hydroxy carbonyl compound.
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Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones: Baeyer–Villiger Oxidation01:22

Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones: Baeyer–Villiger Oxidation

5.2K
Baeyer–Villiger oxidation converts aldehydes to carboxylic acids and ketones to esters. The reaction uses peroxy acids or peracids and is often catalyzed by acid. The reaction is named after its pioneers, Adolf von Baeyer and Victor Villiger. The reaction is achieved by a wide range of peracids such as m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (mCPBA), perbenzoic acid (C6H5COOOH), peracetic acid (CH3COOOH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BuOOH).
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Structure and function of mammalian aldehyde oxidases.

Mineko Terao1, Maria João Romão2, Silke Leimkühler3

  • 1Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.

Archives of Toxicology
|February 28, 2016
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Summary

Mammalian aldehyde oxidases (AOXs) are versatile molybdo-flavoenzymes with broad substrate specificity. This review details their evolution, structure, and known functions, highlighting their role in xenobiotic metabolism and drug development.

Keywords:
Aldehyde oxidaseDrug metabolismMolybdo-flavoenzymesXanthine oxidoreductase

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Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Enzymology
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Mammalian aldehyde oxidases (AOXs) are molybdo-flavoenzymes with broad substrate specificity, oxidizing aldehydes and hydroxylating heteroaromatic rings.
  • Vertebrate species exhibit variable numbers of AOX isoenzymes, ranging from one in humans (AOX1) to four in rodents (AOX1-4).
  • AOX genes consist of 35 conserved exons, with species-specific complements arising from gene duplication and deletion events.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide a comprehensive overview of current knowledge on mammalian aldehyde oxidases (AOXs).
  • To discuss the evolutionary processes shaping AOX gene families across vertebrate species.
  • To highlight recent advances in understanding AOX structure, catalytic mechanisms, and physiological roles.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of existing research on mammalian aldehyde oxidases.
  • Analysis of evolutionary pathways including gene duplication and pseudogenization.
  • Incorporation of recent crystallographic data for human AOX1 and mouse AOX3.

Main Results:

  • Significant progress has been made in elucidating the structural characteristics and catalytic mechanisms of mammalian AOXs.
  • The evolutionary history of AOX isoenzymes involves complex gene duplication and deletion events.
  • While xenobiotic metabolism roles are established, physiological substrates and functions require further investigation.

Conclusions:

  • Mammalian AOXs are crucial enzymes with established roles in xenobiotic metabolism and increasing relevance in drug development.
  • Further research is needed to fully understand the physiological functions and substrates of various mammalian AOX isoenzymes.
  • Advances in structural biology have provided new insights into AOX catalytic mechanisms.