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Frequency-dependent Selection

Frequency-dependent Selection

When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.

Types of Selection

Types of Selection

Natural selection influences the frequencies of particular alleles and phenotypes within populations in several different ways. Primarily, natural selection can be directional, stabilizing, or disruptive. Directional selection favors one extreme trait and shifts the population towards that phenotype while selecting against individuals displaying alternate traits. Stabilizing selection favors an intermediate trait with a narrow range of variation. Deviation from the optimal phenotype towards an...

Genetic Variation

Genetic Variation

Genetic variation is the diversity in DNA sequences found among individuals of the same species. This diversity is crucial for a species' survival because it helps organisms adapt to environmental changes. Genetic variation begins with fertilization, where an egg and sperm cell merge. Each of these cells carries 23 chromosomes, up to 46 in the fertilized egg. Chromosomes are long DNA strands that contain genes, the basic units of heredity.
Genes exist in different versions called alleles,...

Evolution of New Traits in Microbes

Evolution of New Traits in Microbes

Microorganisms evolve rapidly due to their large population sizes and short generation times, often exhibiting measurable changes within days under laboratory conditions. Natural selection acts on standing genetic variation, enabling the retention and amplification of beneficial traits that confer fitness advantages in changing environments.Adaptive Pigment Regulation in RhodobacterIn Rhodobacter, a genus of purple non-sulfur bacteria, light-harvesting pigments such as bacteriochlorophyll and...

Mutation, Gene Flow, and Genetic Drift

Mutation, Gene Flow, and Genetic Drift

In a population that is not at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of alleles changes over time. Therefore, any deviations from the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can alter the genetic variation of a given population. Conditions that change the genetic variability of a population include mutations, natural selection, non-random mating, gene flow, and genetic drift (small population size).

Limits to Natural Selection

Limits to Natural Selection

Organisms that are well-adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. However, natural selection does not lead to perfectly adapted organisms. Several factors constrain natural selection.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 23, 2026

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations

Published on: February 3, 2023

Refining mimicry: phenotypic variation tracks the local optimum.

Claire Mérot¹, Yann Le Poul¹, Marc Théry²

¹Institut de Systématique Evolution et Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS - MNHN - UPMC - EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France.

The Journal of Animal Ecology

|March 23, 2016

Summary

Rarer butterflies adapt their appearance to match abundant mimics, demonstrating how species evolve shared warning signals. This mimicry refinement may involve genetic exchange between closely related species.

Keywords:

Müllerian mimicry adaptation colour pattern fitness peak gene flow geographic variation hybridization lepidoptera morphometrics perfect mimicry

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Area of Science:

Evolutionary Biology
Ecology
Genetics

Background:

Müllerian mimicry involves chemically defended species converging on shared warning signals.
Geographic variation in mimicry patterns is well-documented, but accuracy of resemblance with varying local optima is less understood.

Purpose of the Study:

To quantify multimodal phenotypic similarity between butterfly comimics.
To investigate how rarer mimics adjust to local phenotypic optima driven by abundant comimics.
To explore the role of intraspecific diversity and hybridization in mimicry refinement.

Main Methods:

Analysis of wing shape, pattern, and hue in butterfly comimics.
Multilocus genotyping to estimate hybridization rates between Heliconius timareta and Heliconius melpomene.
Comparison of phenotypic similarity across different geographic localities with varying species composition.

Main Results:

Subtle variations in Heliconius timareta thelxinoe populations enhance resemblance to local abundant comimics.
Rarer comimics track shifts in the local phenotypic optimum due to community composition changes.
Evidence for multimodal convergence in wing outline, pattern, and hue.
Hybridization rates suggest adaptive introgression may refine mimicry accuracy.

Conclusions:

Rarer mimics dynamically adjust their phenotype to match local, abundant comimics, driving mimicry patterns.
Intraspecific diversity in mimetic patterns arises from tracking community shifts.
Adaptive introgression between closely related species may enhance mimicry accuracy.