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Most plants use the C3 pathway for carbon fixation. However, some plants, such as sugar cane, corn, and cacti that grow in hot conditions, use alternative pathways to fix carbon and conserve energy loss due to photorespiration. Photorespiration is the process that occurs when the oxygen concentration is high. Under such conditions, the rubisco enzyme in the Calvin cycle binds O2 instead of CO2, which halts photosynthesis and consumes energy.
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Ribulose 1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) is a critical enzyme that catalyzes carbon dioxide assimilation during photosynthesis. However, it is an inefficient enzyme, having an extremely slow catalytic rate. A typical enzyme can process about a thousand molecules per second; however, RuBisCo fixes only around three-carbon dioxides per second. Photosynthetic cells compensate for this slow rate by synthesizing very high amounts of RuBisCo, making it the most abundant single...
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OverviewOxygenic photosynthesis plays a central role in the global carbon and oxygen cycles. The carbohydrates produced support nearly all food webs, while the oxygen by‑product enables aerobic life.Light‑dependent and light‑independent reactionsPhotosynthesis occurs in two main stages, each in a different part of the chloroplast: light‑dependent reactions and light‑independent reactions, also called the Calvin‑Benson cycle or simply the Calvin...
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The multi-protein complex photosystem II (PS II) harvests photons and transfers their energy through its bound pigments to its reaction center, and ultimately to photosystem I (PSI) through the electron transport chain. The pigments responsible for caputirng the light energy in photosystems include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 22, 2026

Author Spotlight: Innovative Approaches to Understanding Plant Structure-Function Relationships for Climate-Resilient Crops
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Walking the C4 pathway: past, present, and future.

Robert T Furbank1

  • 1ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, The Australian National University, Research School of Biology, 134 Linnaeus Way, Acton ACT 2601, Australia CSIRO Agriculture, Clunies Ross St, Acton ACT 2601, Australia Robert.furbank@anu.edu.au.

Journal of Experimental Botany
|April 10, 2016
PubMed
Summary

This review celebrates 50 years of C4 photosynthesis research, detailing its discovery and evolution. Future work aims to engineer C4 rice for food security and biofuels.

Keywords:
Bundle sheathC4 decarboxylationC4 photosynthesisKranz anatomyPEP carboxylaseRubisco.

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Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Plant Biology
  • Photosynthesis Research

Background:

  • The discovery of C4 photosynthesis by Hatch and Slack in 1966 revolutionized plant science.
  • This pathway enhances carbon dioxide fixation, particularly in warm climates.

Observation:

  • Early research focused on the biochemical pathway and Kranz anatomy.
  • The role of the bundle sheath CO2 pool and C4's function as a CO2 pump were key discoveries.

Findings:

  • Decades of research elucidated pathway regulation and physiological differences between C3 and C4 plants.
  • Modern techniques like plant transformation and sequencing reveal evolutionary genetic changes.

Implications:

  • Current efforts focus on engineering C4 rice to improve food security.
  • This research also explores novel biofuel feedstocks and enhances the C4 photosynthetic engine.