Related Experiment Video
Updated: Mar 22, 2026

Author Spotlight: Understanding Adolescent Social Adversity Effects on Neurodevelopment in Mice
Published on: March 15, 2024
Depressive symptoms in adolescence: The role of perceived parental support, psychological control, and proactive
E Van Assche1, T Moons2, K Van Leeuwen3
1GRASP-Research Group, Department of Neuroscience, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; University Psychiatric Center KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
Background:
Parenting dimensions are associated with depressive symptoms in adolescents. We investigated the role of perceived parenting dimensions and gene-environment interactions between these perceived parenting dimensions and five well-known variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs): 5-HTTLPR, STin2, DAT1, DRD4, and MAO-A, in depressive symptoms.
Methods:
From a non-clinical sample of 1111 Belgian adolescents (mean age: 13.79 years, SD=.94; 51% boys), 1103 adolescents consented for genetic research. Five VNTRs were analyzed using DNA from saliva samples. Perceived parenting dimensions (i.e., support, proactive control, psychological control, punishment, and harsh punishment) were examined using self-report scales completed by adolescents and their parents. Depressive symptoms were investigated using the CES-D self-report scale. Statistical analyses were performed in R using linear regression.
Results:
Parental support, as perceived by the adolescent, was negatively associated with depressive symptoms (CES-D) and psychological control was positively associated with these symptoms. The only interaction effect withstanding correction for multiple testing was observed for 5-HTTLPR and the difference in proactive control as perceived by adolescents in comparison to parents. Short-allele carriers showed more depressive symptoms when there was a higher discrepancy in proactive control as perceived by adolescents versus parents.
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that perceived parenting dimensions are associated with depressive symptoms, as measured by the CES-D. We only found modest evidence for 5-HTTLPR as a moderator in the association between the difference in perception of proactive control (adolescents vs. parents) and depressive symptoms.
Related Concept Videos
Self-Evaluation: Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification
Depressive Disorders: Etiology
Biological Factors in Depression
Biological predispositions significantly influence the risk of developing depressive disorders. Genetic studies highlight the role of variations in the serotonin transporter...
Influence of Parents and Peers on Identity
Parental Influence on Identity Development
Parents serve as primary guides and managers in an adolescent's life, offering support instrumental in decision-making and personal growth....
Human Genetics
The complex relationship between genetics and psychology is observable through common biological components such...
Psychological and Sociocultural Causes of Schizophrenia
Sources of Self-Esteem I: Family Experience

