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Related Concept Videos

Development of Human Microbiota01:30

Development of Human Microbiota

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The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from...
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Development of the Oral Microbiota01:28

Development of the Oral Microbiota

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The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
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Gut-Brain Axis01:22

Gut-Brain Axis

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The gut–brain axis is a bidirectional communication system that connects the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. This interaction is mediated through multiple pathways, including the vagus nerve, hormonal signals, immune responses, and chemical messengers produced by gut microbes.Microbial Contributions to Brain FunctionGut microbiota contributes significantly to brain function by producing neuroactive compounds. These include neuroactive compounds that influence neurotransmitters such...
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Introduction to the Human Microbiota01:22

Introduction to the Human Microbiota

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Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity,...
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Anatomy of the Intestines01:23

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Although digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids may begin in the stomach, it is completed in the intestine. The absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes from food and drink also occurs in the intestine. The intestines can be divided into two structurally distinct organs—the small and large intestines.
Small Intestines
The small intestine is an ~7 meter-long tube with an inner diameter of just 2.5 cm. Since most nutrients are absorbed here, the inner lining of the...
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Microbiota of the Urogenital Tract01:28

Microbiota of the Urogenital Tract

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The human urogenital system, once thought to be sterile in healthy individuals, is now recognized as a complex microbial habitat. Advancements in molecular sequencing techniques have revealed that even in healthy adults, the kidneys and bladder harbor microbial populations similar to those found in the distal urethra, albeit in much lower abundance. These resident microorganisms, while generally innocuous, can become opportunistic pathogens under conditions that alter the urogenital...
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Updated: Mar 21, 2026

Microbiota Analysis Using Two-step PCR and Next-generation 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing
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Gut microbiota in early pediatric multiple sclerosis: a case-control study.

Helen Tremlett1, Douglas W Fadrosh2, Ali A Faruqi2

  • 1University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.

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|May 14, 2016
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Summary

Pediatric multiple sclerosis (MS) is linked to gut microbiome changes, with specific bacteria enriched and others depleted. These gut alterations may contribute to neuroinflammation in early-onset MS.

Keywords:
16S rRNAcase−control studygut microbiomegut microbiotaimmunomodulatory drugspediatric multiple sclerosisrisk factors

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Neuroscience
  • Immunology

Background:

  • Gut microbial community composition alterations may influence neurological disease.
  • Understanding the gut microbiome in pediatric multiple sclerosis (MS) is crucial.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare gut microbial community profiles between children with early-onset MS and healthy controls.
  • To identify specific microbial taxa and functional pathways associated with pediatric MS.

Main Methods:

  • 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing and PICRUSt analysis were used to examine fecal bacterial community composition and predicted function.
  • Non-parametric tests, PERMANOVA, and negative binomial regression identified associations between subject characteristics and the microbiota.

Main Results:

  • Pediatric MS cases showed significant enrichment in Desulfovibrionaceae and depletion in Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae compared to controls.
  • Gut bacterial beta diversity was not significantly related to MS status, but immunomodulatory drug (IMD) exposure was.
  • Predicted microbial genes involved in glutathione metabolism were enriched in MS cases, irrespective of IMD exposure.

Conclusions:

  • Perturbations in gut microbiome composition are observed in recent-onset pediatric MS.
  • Predicted enrichment of metabolic pathways associated with neurodegeneration suggests a pro-inflammatory milieu in pediatric MS.