A new flagellated dispersion stage in Paraphysoderma sedebokerense, a pathogen of Haematococcus pluvialis

The blastocladialean fungus Paraphysoderma sedebokerense Boussiba, Zarka and James is a devastating pathogen of the commercially valuable green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis, a natural source of the carotenoid pigment astaxanthin. First identified in commercial Haematococcus cultivation facilities, P. sedebokerense is hypothesised to have a complex life cycle that switches between a vegetative and a resting phase depending on favourable or unfavourable growth conditions. Rather unusually for blastocladialean fungi, P. sedebokerense was described as lacking flagellated zoospores and only propagating via aplanosporic amoeboid cells. However, during repeated microscopic observation of P. sedebokerense cultivated in optimal conditions, we detected fast-swimming, transiently uniflagellated zoospores which rapidly transform into infectious amoeboid swarmers, the existence of which suggests a closer than previously thought relatedness of P. sedebokerense to its sister genera Physoderma and Urophlyctis. Additionally, we found some morphological and physiological differences between amoeboid swarmers and discuss hypotheses about their significance. These amoeboid and flagellated propagules are key to the dissemination of P. sedebokerense and are probably also the life stages most vulnerable to adverse environmental conditions. They are therefore a prime target for the development of disease management protocols in industrial cultivation facilities, a goal which requires a detailed understanding of their physiology.