Multiscale characterization and representation of composite materials during processing

Given the importance of residual stresses and dimensional changes in composites manufacturing, process simulation has been the focus of many studies in recent years. Consequently, various constitutive models and simulation approaches have been developed and implemented for composites process simulation. In this paper, various constitutive models, ranging from elastic to nonlinear viscoelastic; and simulation approaches ranging from separated flow/solid phases to multiscale integrated phases are presented and their applicability for process simulation is discussed. Attention has been paid to practical aspects of the problem where the complexity of the model coupled with the complexity and size scaling of the structure increases the characterization and simulation costs. Two specific approaches and their application are presented in detail: the pseudo-viscoelastic cure hardening instantaneously linear elastic (CHILE) and linear viscoelastic (VE). It is shown that CHILE can predict the residual stress formation in simple cure cycles such as the one-hold cycle for HEXCEL AS4/8552 where the material does not devitrify during processing. It is also shown that using this simple approach, the cure cycle can be modified to lower the residual stress level and therefore increase the mechanical performance of the composite laminate. For a more complex cure cycle where the material is devitrified during a post-cure, it is shown that a more complex model such as VE is required. This article is part of the themed issue 'Multiscale modelling of the structural integrity of composite materials'.