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Related Concept Videos

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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Classification of Bones01:18

Classification of Bones

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The bones of the human skeletal system are of varied shapes, sizes, and functions. They can be classified based on their shape and function into four major classes: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Some classifications include a fifth type, the sesamoid bones, as a separate class, whereas others categorize them under short bones.
Long and Short Bones
The appendicular skeleton, particularly the upper and lower limbs, is primarily made of long and short bones. The...
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Bones of the Lower Limb: Femur and Patella01:16

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The femur is the body's longest and strongest bone spanning the thigh region. Its head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. A minor indentation on the medial side of the femoral head, called the fovea capitis, serves as the site of attachment for the ligament of the head of the femur. This weak ligament spans the femur and acetabulum and supports the hip joint. The narrowed region below the head is the neck of the femur. The inclination angle between the...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna01:15

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The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side...
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Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age01:09

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

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The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
Initially, the limb buds consist of a core of mesenchyme covered by a layer of ectoderm. The ectoderm at the end of the limb bud thickens to form a narrow crest called the apical ectodermal ridge. This ridge stimulates the underlying...
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Bone Structure01:55

Bone Structure

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Within the skeletal system, the structure of a bone, or osseous tissue, can be exemplified in a long bone, like the femur, where there are two types of osseous tissue: cortical and cancellous.
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Automated Joint Space Detection Improves Bone Segmentation Accuracy
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Geographic variation in gorilla limb bones.

Rebecca S Jabbour1, Tessa L Pearman1

  • 1Department of Biology, Saint Mary's College of California, 1928 Saint Mary's Road, Moraga, CA 94575, USA.

Journal of Human Evolution
|June 5, 2016
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study analyzed limb bone variation in 266 gorillas, revealing distinct differences between eastern and western gorilla species. Geographic variation influences gorilla skeletal morphology, potentially linked to Pleistocene refugia.

Keywords:
African apeAltitudeFootHandSkeletonTaxonomy

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Area of Science:

  • Primatology
  • Paleontology
  • Zoology
  • Bioarchaeology

Background:

  • Gorilla systematics has been a focus for primatologists, conservationists, and paleontologists, leading to proposals for two distinct species: Gorilla gorilla (western gorilla) and Gorilla beringei (eastern gorilla).
  • Previous research on postcranial differences primarily compared mountain gorillas (G. beringei beringei) with western lowland gorillas (G. g. gorilla).
  • Geographic variation within eastern and western gorilla species, particularly in limb bone morphology, remained underexplored, as did the taxonomic status of subspecies like Gorilla gorilla diehli and G. b. rex-pymaeorum.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate geographic diversity in gorilla limb bone skeletons.
  • To evaluate proposed subspecies (e.g., Cross River gorilla, Tshiaberimu, and Kahuzi gorillas) within the context of geographic variation.
  • To examine forelimb and hindlimb skeletal differences between eastern and western gorilla species and their subspecies.

Main Methods:

  • Collected 43 linear measurements from limb bones (humerus, radius, metacarpal, hand phalanx, femur, tibia, calcaneus, metatarsal, foot phalanx) of 266 adult gorillas.
  • Represented populations included G. b. beringei, Gorilla beringei graueri, G. g. gorilla, and G. g. diehli.
  • Employed comparisons of means and principal components analyses to assess skeletal variation and population clustering.

Main Results:

  • Eastern and western gorillas were clearly differentiated by skeletal measurements, with eastern gorillas exhibiting smaller hands and feet, both absolutely and relatively.
  • Gorilla subspecies and populations clustered consistently by species, though G. g. diehli showed similarities to eastern gorillas in hand and foot size.
  • Subspecies within G. beringei were less distinctly separated than the two main species, and G. b. graueri populations displayed variability, with Kahuzi and Tshiaberimu specimens not clustering together.

Conclusions:

  • Geographic variation significantly influences gorilla limb bone morphology, supporting the distinction between eastern and western gorilla species.
  • The findings suggest that higher-altitude Pleistocene refugia may have played a role in shaping observed patterns of geographic variation in gorillas.
  • The study provides skeletal evidence relevant to ongoing discussions about gorilla taxonomy and subspecies recognition, particularly for G. g. diehli.