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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 19, 2026

Electroencephalographic, Heart Rate, and Galvanic Skin Response Assessment for an Advertising Perception Study: Application to Antismoking Public Service Announcements
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Reactance to Health Warnings Scale: Development and Validation.

Marissa G Hall1,2,3, Paschal Sheeran1,3,4, Seth M Noar1,3,5

  • 1University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.

Annals of Behavioral Medicine : a Publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine
|June 24, 2016
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

A new scale measures reactance, a resistance to health warnings. This resistance, particularly anger and perceived manipulation, reduced the effectiveness of pictorial cigarette warnings.

Keywords:
Health communicationPictorial warningsReactanceScale developmentTobacco control

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Area of Science:

  • Psychology
  • Public Health
  • Health Communication

Background:

  • Health warnings may be less effective if they elicit reactance, a motivation to resist a threat to freedom.
  • A standard measure of reactance is currently lacking.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To validate a new health warning reactance scale.
  • To assess the scale's utility in the context of pictorial cigarette pack warnings.

Main Methods:

  • A national sample of adults (n=1413) responded to reactance survey questions while viewing randomly assigned pictorial or text warnings on cigarette packs.
  • A longitudinal sample of adult smokers (n=46) received warnings on their own cigarette packs.

Main Results:

  • A reliable and valid 27-item Reactance to Health Warnings Scale was identified through factor analyses.
  • Smokers rated pictorial warnings as more motivating than text warnings.
  • Five reactance factors (anger, exaggeration, government, manipulation, personal attack) weakened warning impact (p < .05).

Conclusions:

  • The Reactance to Health Warnings Scale demonstrated good psychometric properties.
  • Reactance was found to diminish the impact of pictorial warnings on smokers' motivation to quit.