Hormonal patterns in breeding and nonbreeding kestrels, Falco tinnunculus: field and laboratory studies

Plasma levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), androgens, and corticosterone (B) were measured in breeding and nonbreeding kestrels, both in the field and in captivity under different food conditions. LH levels in breeding males were elevated from courtship through incubation and androgen concentration peaked during courtship and laying. Seasonal changes in LH and androgens were similar in breeding and nonbreeding males, although androgens declined sharply after laying in breeding males. Egg laying was characterized by marked increases in both female body mass and plasma concentrations of LH and B. In both breeding and nonbreeding females LH and B increased during pair formation and courtship (March-April), although maximum levels were lower in nonbreeders. Two marked differences were found between free-living and captive (paired) birds. First, during winter plasma levels of LH were basal in free-living birds, while significantly elevated in both captive males and females. Second, during courtship androgen levels in breeding males were three-fold higher in the field than in captivity, probably as a result of intermale aggression under natural conditions. Females breeding early, late, or not at all had similar LH concentrations on arrival and during early courtship. Before breeding there were also no differences in LH (males and females) or in androgen levels (males) between pairs fed ad libitum and pairs temporary food rationed. However, captive females with experimentally reduced food intake showed low levels of B until their rations were increased. Nonbreeders showed hormonal changes similar to breeders, except for those changes in females that were associated with laying. These results suggest that at the start of the breeding season both nonbreeding and breeding kestrels have functional reproductive systems. That some breed early, late, or not at all is primarily an effect of food availability and is not due to hormonal modulation of the reproductive cycle.