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Symbiosis

Symbiosis

Symbiotic relationships are long-term, close interactions between individuals of different species that affect the distribution and abundance of those species. When a relationship is beneficial to both species, this is called mutualism. When the relationship is beneficial to one species but neither beneficial nor harmful to the other species, this is called commensalism. When one organism is harmed to benefit another, the relationship is known as parasitism. These types of relationships often...

Competition

Competition

When organisms require the same limited resources within an environment, they may have to compete for them. Competition is a net-negative interaction. Even if two competing individuals or populations do not interact directly, the overall fitness of both competitors is lowered as a result of not having full access to the limited resource.

Predator-Prey Interactions

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Predators consume prey for energy. Predators that acquire prey and prey that avoid predation both increase their chances of survival and reproduction (i.e., fitness). Routine predator-prey interactions elicit mutual adaptations that improve predator offenses, such as claws, teeth, and speed, as well as prey defenses, including crypsis, aposematism, and mimicry. Thus, predator-prey interactions resemble an evolutionary arms race.

Frequency-dependent Selection

Frequency-dependent Selection

When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.

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Plants often form mutualistic relationships with soil-dwelling fungi or bacteria to enhance their roots’ nutrient uptake ability. Root-colonizing fungi (e.g., mycorrhizae) increase a plant’s root surface area, which promotes nutrient absorption. While root-colonizing, nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., rhizobia) convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), making nitrogen available to plants for various biological functions. For example, nitrogen is essential for the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 17, 2026

Methods for Rearing the Parasitoid Ganaspis brasiliensis, a Promising Biological Control Agent for the Invasive Drosophila suzukii

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Interspecific competition/facilitation among insect parasitoids.

Antonino Cusumano¹, Ezio Peri¹, Stefano Colazza¹

¹Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie e Forestali, Università degli Studi di Palermo, viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy.

Current Opinion in Insect Science

|July 21, 2016

Summary

Interspecific competition among insect parasitoids impacts pest suppression. This review examines adult and larval competition, and potential facilitation, for biological control applications.

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Area of Science:

Ecology
Entomology
Biological Control

Background:

Interspecific competition is a key ecological interaction influencing animal communities.
Insect parasitoids compete for host resources at both adult and larval stages.
Understanding parasitoid competition is crucial for effective biological pest control.

Purpose of the Study:

To review recent advances in interspecific competition among parasitoids.
To analyze competition from a biological control perspective.
To explore factors influencing adult and larval competition, and potential interspecific facilitation.

Main Methods:

Literature review of recent studies on interspecific competition in insect parasitoids.
Analysis of direct and indirect interactions in adult competition.
Examination of larval competition within hosts and its fitness consequences.
Exploration of interspecific facilitation among parasitoid species.

Main Results:

Adult parasitoid competition outcomes are influenced by various direct and indirect factors.
Larval competition within a host significantly impacts survivor fitness.
Interspecific facilitation can occur, benefiting certain parasitoid species.
Competition dynamics are critical for shaping parasitoid communities and pest suppression.

Conclusions:

Interspecific competition and facilitation are vital processes in insect parasitoid ecology.
Knowledge of these interactions enhances the efficacy of biological control strategies.
Further research into competition dynamics can optimize pest management through parasitoids.