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A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used to study the surface features of a sample by using an electron beam that scans the sample surface in a two-dimensional manner. Typically, areas between ~1 centimeter to 5 micrometers in width can be imaged. SEM can be used to image bacteria, viruses, tissues as well as larger samples like insects. Conventional SEM gives a magnification ranging from 20X to 30,000X and spatial resolution of 50 to 100 nanometers.
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In analytical chemistry, we often perform repetitive measurements to detect and minimize inaccuracies caused by both determinate and indeterminate errors. Despite the cares we take, the presence of random errors means that repeated measurements almost never have exactly the same magnitude. The collective difference between these measurements - observed values - and the estimated or expected value is called uncertainty. Uncertainty is conventionally written after the estimated or expected value.
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Inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS) is a highly selective and sensitive technique for accurate elemental analysis. Though the analysis of ICP–MS mass spectra is comparatively straightforward, it is affected by spectroscopic and non-spectroscopic interferences. Spectroscopic interferences arise when the plasma contains ionic species with an m/z value the same as the analyte ion. Spectroscopic interference can be categorized as isobaric, polyatomic ions, and...
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To be visualized by an electron microscope, either transmission or scanning, biological samples need to be fixed (stabilized) so the electron beam does not destroy them and dried thoroughly (desiccated/dehydrated) so the vacuum does not affect them. Fixation needs to be done as quickly as possible because the sample properties will start changing as soon as it is removed from its natural environment. For example, in a tissue sample, the oxygen levels begin decreasing, causing an altered...
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Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that there is a fundamental limit to how accurately one can measure both a particle’s position and its momentum simultaneously. The more accurate the measurement of the momentum of a particle is known, the less accurate the position at that time is known and vice versa. This is what is now called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. He...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 17, 2026

In Situ Detection and Single Cell Quantification of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Using Nuclear Microprobe Analysis
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In Situ Detection and Single Cell Quantification of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Using Nuclear Microprobe Analysis

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Uncertainty in Quantitative Electron Probe Microanalysis.

Kurt F J Heinrich1

  • 1National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 10899-0001.

Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
|July 23, 2016
PubMed
Summary

Quantitative electron probe analysis models, crucial for material characterization, are validated using well-analyzed specimens. This ensures the reliability of results derived from X-ray generation physics.

Keywords:
absorption coefficientsaccuracymicroanalysismodelsx-ray absorptionx-ray spectrometry

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Last Updated: Mar 17, 2026

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Analytical Chemistry
  • Physics

Background:

  • Quantitative electron probe analysis (QEPA) relies on physical models of X-ray generation.
  • These models require empirical adjustments based on known material compositions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the accuracy of quantitative electron probe analysis models.
  • To establish a method for validating QEPA model performance.

Main Methods:

  • Application of established QEPA models to a set of reference materials.
  • Analysis of X-ray generation data from specimens with well-characterized compositions.

Main Results:

  • Empirical adjustments refine the accuracy of X-ray generation models.
  • Validation using known composition specimens provides an estimate of model reliability.

Conclusions:

  • The accuracy of QEPA models can be reliably estimated through validation with reference materials.
  • This approach is essential for ensuring precise elemental analysis in materials science.