Arterial dysgenesis and limb defects: Clinical and experimental examples

Limb malformations are amongst the most common and visible birth effects. Causes have been purported to include genetic aberrations as well as teratogens, such as thalidomide. Here we review the evidence for vascular disruption in the genesis of limb malformations through abnormal arterial transitioning and from events such as amniocentesis, uterine constriction, and through teratogen exposure. We use several clinical and experimental examples and highlight the need to understand more about the role the vascular system plays in the molecular mechanisms underpinning normal limb development.