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Related Concept Videos

Parasympathetic Division of the ANS01:08

Parasympathetic Division of the ANS

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The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates rest and digestion functions in the body. It works in opposition to the sympathetic division, promoting relaxation, conservation of energy, and digestion. The parasympathetic division consists of preganglionic fibers originating from specific cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, X) and the sacral spinal nerves (S2-S4). These fibers synapse with postganglionic neurons in the terminal ganglia, innervating various organs and...
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Autonomic Nervous System: Overview01:26

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The human nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS contains nerve cells, clusters of nerve cells, and the sensory receptors that are outside the CNS. The PNS has two types of nerve cells: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent). Sensory cells send signals to the CNS from receptors, and motor cells carry signals from the CNS to organs, muscles, and...
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Cranial Part of Parasympathetic Division01:18

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The cranial part of the parasympathetic division plays a crucial role in regulating the visceral functions of the head and specific structures in the neck, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities. Preganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division exit the brain through cranial nerves III (oculomotor), VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus), delivering parasympathetic output to the respective visceral structures.
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Autonomic Nervous System01:22

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The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a critical component of the peripheral nervous system, primarily responsible for regulating involuntary bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. It functions in tandem with the central nervous system (CNS) to seamlessly coordinate various physiological processes without the need for conscious control.
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The Parasympathetic Nervous System01:14

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Overview
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Parasympathetic Signaling01:30

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Parasympathetic signaling plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes. It involves the release of acetylcholine (ACh) by parasympathetic neurons, which can have localized and short-lived effects. The majority of ACh released is rapidly inactivated at the synapse by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which hydrolyzes Ach into choline and acetate. Additionally, the tissue cholinesterase deactivates any ACh diffusing into the surrounding tissues.
The effects of...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 12, 2026

Dissection of Pelvic Autonomic Ganglia and Associated Nerves in Male and Female Rats
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The sacral autonomic outflow is sympathetic.

I Espinosa-Medina1, O Saha1, F Boismoreau1

  • 1Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure (IBENS), INSERM, CNRS, École Normale Supérieure, Paris Sciences et Lettres Research University, Paris, 75005 France.

Science (New York, N.Y.)
|November 19, 2016
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

The sacral nervous system, long thought to be parasympathetic, actually shares characteristics with the sympathetic nervous system. This finding redefines the autonomic nervous system

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Developmental Biology
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is traditionally divided into cranial parasympathetic and thoracolumbar sympathetic outflows.
  • Pelvic visceral nerves, controlling functions like defecation and urination, have been classified as parasympathetic, originating from sacral nerves.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To re-evaluate the classification of sacral outflow neurons within the autonomic nervous system.
  • To investigate the phenotypic and ontogenetic features of cranial and sacral outflows in mice.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative analysis of 15 phenotypic and ontogenetic features.
  • Distinguishing pre- and postganglionic neurons in cranial parasympathetic and thoracolumbar sympathetic outflows.
  • Assessing the sacral outflow against these established criteria.

Main Results:

  • Sacral outflow neurons were indistinguishable from thoracolumbar sympathetic neurons based on all 15 features.
  • Cranial outflow neurons exhibited distinct features differentiating them from thoracolumbar neurons.
  • This challenges the century-old classification of sacral nerves as purely parasympathetic.

Conclusions:

  • The autonomic nervous system may possess a bipartite architecture, with cranial nerves exclusively serving parasympathetic functions and spinal nerves (thoracic to sacral) serving sympathetic functions.
  • This revised framework offers new insights into pelvic neurophysiology, autonomic development, and evolution.