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Preclinical Development: Overview

Preclinical Development: Overview

Preclinical development consists of a series of tests that ensure the safety and efficacy of a new therapeutic compound before it is tested in humans. There are four main phases to this process. First, safety pharmacology tests are conducted to ensure the drug does not produce any acutely harmful effects. These tests examine parameters such as bronchoconstriction, cardiac dysrhythmias, blood pressure changes, and ataxia. Next, preliminary toxicological testing is performed to determine the...

Drug Discovery: Overview

Drug Discovery: Overview

Drug discovery is a multifaceted process involving extensive screening, testing, and optimization of lead compounds to identify potential new drugs for therapeutic use. It combines several approaches, including screening large numbers of natural products, chemical modification of known active molecules, identification of new drug targets, and rational design based on biological mechanisms and drug-receptor structure. These approaches are carried out in both academic research laboratories and...

Impact of Pharmacokinetic–Pharmacodynamic Models: Regulatory Decisions

Impact of Pharmacokinetic–Pharmacodynamic Models: Regulatory Decisions

PK–PD modeling has significantly influenced FDA regulatory decisions, particularly drug approval, dosage optimization, and labeling. These models integrate pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) to predict drug behavior and effects, aiding in optimizing dosing regimens and enhancing the probability of clinical trial success.One notable example is Nesiritide (Natrecor®), a recombinant human brain natriuretic peptide for treating acute decompensated congestive heart failure...

Clinical Trials: Overview

Clinical Trials: Overview

Clinical development focuses on how the drug will interact with the human body and encompasses four key phases of clinical trials, each serving a specific purpose in assessing the safety and effectiveness of new drugs. These phases overlap and build upon one another. Phase I involves a small group of healthy volunteers (typically 20-80 individuals) or, in cases where significant toxicity is expected, patients with the targeted disease, such as cancer or AIDS. The volunteers are tested for...

Pharmacodynamics: Overview and Principles

Pharmacodynamics: Overview and Principles

Pharmacodynamics is a scientific field that delves into drugs' intricate biochemical, cellular, and physiological effects on the human body. The study of pharmacodynamics helps us understand how drugs interact with the body and elicit various responses.
Most drugs' effects result from their interactions with drug receptors or targets within the body. These interactions trigger specific responses at the cellular or systemic level. Drug receptors can be found on the surfaces of cells or...

Pharmacogenomics: Identification of New Drug Targets

Pharmacogenomics: Identification of New Drug Targets

Advances in genomics have profoundly influenced drug discovery by increasing both the speed and accuracy of pharmaceutical development. Pharmacogenomics, which examines how genetic variation influences drug response, facilitates the identification of novel therapeutic targets and enables patient stratification for personalized treatment. These strategies contribute to improved drug efficacy, minimized adverse effects, and more efficient clinical trial design.Mapping genetic differences...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 9, 2026

Identifying PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibitors with Surface Plasmon Resonance Technology

Identifying PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibitors with Surface Plasmon Resonance Technology

Published on: May 2, 2025

The PD1:PD-L1/2 Pathway from Discovery to Clinical Implementation.

Kankana Bardhan¹, Theodora Anagnostou², Vassiliki A Boussiotis¹

¹Division of Hematology-Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.

Frontiers in Immunology

|December 27, 2016

Summary

The PD-1:PD-L1/L2 pathway is crucial for immune tolerance but can impair anti-viral and anti-tumor immunity. Targeting this pathway enhances T cell responses against pathogens and cancers.

Keywords:

PD-1 PD-L1 T cell exhaustion T cell responses T cell tolerance cancer immunology cancer immunotherapy

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Mapping Dysfunctional Protein-Protein Interactions in Disease

Mapping Dysfunctional Protein-Protein Interactions in Disease

Published on: October 24, 2025

Area of Science:

Immunology
Molecular Biology
Cell Signaling

Background:

The immune system requires precise regulation to distinguish self from non-self, preventing autoimmunity while effectively clearing pathogens.
T lymphocytes are key effectors and regulators of immune responses, with mechanisms like central tolerance and peripheral tolerance (anergy, deletion, regulatory T cells) controlling self-reactive cells.
The PD-1 (programmed cell death 1) receptor and its ligands (PD-L1, PD-L2) are critical inhibitory mediators in maintaining immune homeostasis and peripheral tolerance.

Conclusions:

The PD-1 pathway is a double-edged sword, essential for self-tolerance but also capable of suppressing beneficial immune responses.
Therapeutic strategies targeting the PD-1 pathway have shown promise in boosting T cell immunity against infections and cancers.
Understanding PD-1 signaling is vital for developing effective immunotherapies.