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All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, α and β particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they...
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Humans continually engage with an environment rich in potentially harmful chemicals. These are introduced to our bodies through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. These chemicals exist in various forms, such as air and environmental pollutants, agricultural chemicals, organic solvents, and heavy metals.
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Toxicity tests in animals are grounded on two main assumptions: first, the effects observed in laboratory animals can be extrapolated to humans, especially when adjusted for body surface area; second, high-dose exposure in animals is essential to identify potential human hazards from lower doses. This is based on the quantal dose-response concept, which faces the challenge of extrapolating results from relatively few test animals to much larger human populations. For example, a 0.01% incidence...
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Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger binding energies per nucleon—that is, mass numbers and binding energies per nucleon that are closer to the “peak” of the binding energy graph near 56. Sometimes neutrons are also produced. This decomposition of a large nucleus into smaller pieces is called fission. The breaking is rather random with the formation of a large...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 7, 2026

Whole-Body Nanoparticle Aerosol Inhalation Exposures
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RADON IN US WORKPLACES: A REVIEW.

Robert D Daniels1, Mary K Schubauer-Berigan1

  • 1National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Cincinnati, OH, USA.

Radiation Protection Dosimetry
|February 17, 2017
PubMed
Summary

Radon exposure is a significant lung cancer risk for US workers, especially in non-uranium industries. Current US radon protection standards are outdated and less protective than European recommendations.

Area of Science:

  • Environmental Health
  • Occupational Health
  • Radiation Protection

Background:

  • Naturally occurring radon exposure is a significant, unavoidable risk factor for lung cancer in the USA, second only to smoking.
  • Many US occupations, unrelated to the uranium fuel cycle, show wide variations in radon exposure levels.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review existing information on US occupations with increased radon exposure.
  • To discuss current occupational radon exposure recommendations and protective standards for US workers.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of US occupations and radon exposure.
  • Analysis of current occupational radon exposure standards and recommendations.

Main Results:

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  • Radon exposure varies widely across different working populations.
  • Occupational radon protection standards in the US have remained unchanged since the 1970s.
  • European countries are adopting lower reference levels for radon exposure, aligning with international recommendations.

    • Conclusions:

    • US occupational radon exposure standards are less stringent than current international recommendations.
    • There is a need to update US occupational radon protection standards to better safeguard workers.
    • Workers in diverse industries face potential radon exposure risks that require updated regulatory attention.