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Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement Schedules

Positive reinforcement is a powerful method for teaching new behaviors to both animals and humans. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments using rats in a Skinner box. When a rat pressed a lever, it received a food pellet. This immediate reward encouraged the rat to repeat the behavior. This method, where a reward follows every instance of the behavior, is known as continuous reinforcement. It is highly effective for establishing new behaviors quickly.
Once a behavior is learned,...

Reinforcement

Reinforcement

Positive and negative reinforcement are key concepts in operant conditioning, a learning process where the consequences of a behavior affect the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, increasing the frequency of that behavior. For example:

Decision Making: Traditional Method

Decision Making: Traditional Method

The process of hypothesis testing based on the traditional method includes calculating the critical value, testing the value of the test statistic using the sample data, and interpreting these values.
First, a specific claim about the population parameter is decided based on the research question and is stated in a simple form. Further, an opposing statement to this claim is also stated. These statements can act as null and alternative hypotheses, out of which a null hypothesis would be a...

Decision Making

Decision Making

Decision-making is a fundamental cognitive process that involves evaluating alternatives and selecting among them. This process can range from simple choices, such as deciding what to wear, to complex decisions, like choosing a major in college or a career path. The complexity of the decision often dictates the approach we use, which can be broadly categorized into two types: automatic and controlled decision-making.
Automatic decision-making is fast, intuitive, and relies on gut feelings...

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

In psychology, reinforcement is a key concept in behavior modification. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments involving rats in what is known as a Skinner box. The rats learned to press a lever to receive food, a primary reinforcer that fulfilled their innate need for nourishment.
Effective reinforcers for humans vary depending on the individual and the context. Primary reinforcers, such as food, water, sleep, shelter, and pleasure, have inherent value and satisfy basic biological...

Decision Making: P-value Method

Decision Making: P-value Method

The process of hypothesis testing based on the P-value method includes calculating the P- value using the sample data and interpreting it.
First, a specific claim about the population parameter is proposed. The claim is based on the research question and is stated in a simple form. Further, an opposing statement to the claim is also stated. These statements can act as null and alternative hypotheses: a null hypothesis would be a neutral statement while the alternative hypothesis can...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 7, 2026

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Published on: September 10, 2018

A distributed, hierarchical and recurrent framework for reward-based choice.

Laurence T Hunt¹, Benjamin Y Hayden²

¹Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, 12 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK.

Nature Reviews. Neuroscience

|February 18, 2017

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Choices arise from distributed brain computations, not distinct serial processes. This perspective highlights emergent value signals and neuroanatomical features supporting complex decision-making.

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Last Updated: Mar 7, 2026

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

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Published on: September 10, 2018

Studying Food Reward and Motivation in Humans

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The Joint Effect of Social Comparison and Social Distance on Evaluation of Intertemporal Choice Outcomes in Event-related Potential Studies

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Published on: August 25, 2023

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Cognitive Science
Computational Neuroscience

Background:

Traditional models propose serial, localized brain processes for reward-based choice.
This viewpoint contrasts with accounts emphasizing distinct, functionally specialized brain regions.

Purpose of the Study:

To propose an alternative model for reward-based choice.
To emphasize distributed neural computations underlying decision-making.
To explore neuroanatomical features supporting choice implementation.

Main Methods:

Theoretical review and synthesis of neuroanatomical and computational principles.
Analysis of recurrent neural networks and hierarchical cortical organization.
Conceptual framework development for emergent value representation.

Main Results:

Choices emerge from repeated, distributed computations across multiple brain regions.
Neuroanatomical features like mutual inhibition and hierarchical processing support choice.
Value correlates are suggested to be emergent properties, not explicitly represented.

Conclusions:

Reward-based choice is better understood as a distributed process.
Neuroanatomy provides mechanisms for implementing choice through parallel processing.
The concept of emergent value offers a new perspective on neural representations.