Risk factors associated with the use of sex hormones

World wide, millions of women have been exposed to potentially carcinogenic steroids in the form of oral contraceptives. Neoplastic liver disease has been associated with the use of such agents, but a direct causal relationship has not been proved. Oral contraceptives may protect against some diseases. Other female sex hormones used in therapeutics probably carry little hazard. Anabolic androgen use is also associated with neoplastic liver disease. Arguments are put forward for caution in the use of male and female sex hormones in man, particularly in regions where possible initiating agents (viruses, oncogenes) may be endemic.