Asymmetries in wing inertial and aerodynamic torques contribute to steering in flying insects

Maneuvering in both natural and artificial miniature flying systems is assumed to be dominated by aerodynamic phenomena. To explore this, we develop a flapping wing model integrating aero and inertial dynamics. The model is applied to an elliptical wing similar to the forewing of the Hawkmoth Manduca sexta and realistic kinematics are prescribed. We scrutinize the stroke deviation phase, as it relates to firing latency in airborne insect steering muscles which has been correlated to various aerial maneuvers. We show that the average resultant force production acting on the body largely arises from wing pitch and roll and is insensitive to the phase and amplitude of stroke deviation. Inclusion of stroke deviation can generate significant averaged aerodynamic torques at steady-state and adjustment of its phase can facilitate body attitude control. Moreover, averaged wing angular momentum varies with stroke deviation phase, implying a non-zero impulse during a time-dependent phase shift. Simulations show wing inertial and aerodynamic impulses are of similar magnitude during short transients whereas aerodynamic impulses dominate during longer transients. Additionally, inertial effects become less significant for smaller flying insects. Body yaw rates arising from these impulses are consistent with biologically measured values. Thus, we conclude (1) modest changes in stroke deviation can significantly affect steering and (2) both aerodynamic and inertial torques are critical to maneuverability, the latter of which has not widely been considered. Therefore, the addition of a control actuator modulating stroke deviation may decouple lift/thrust production from steering mechanisms in flapping wing micro aerial vehicles and increase vehicle dexterity through inertial trajectory shaping.