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Related Concept Videos

Chi-square Analysis02:46

Chi-square Analysis

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The chi-square test is a statistical hypothesis test. It is used to check whether there is a significant difference between an expected value and an observed value. In the context of genetics, it enables us to either accept or reject a hypothesis, based on how much the observed values deviate from the expected values.
The chi-square test was developed by Pearson in 1990.
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Gregor Mendel's work (1822 - 1884) was primarily focused on pea plants. Through his initial experiments, he determined that every gene in a diploid cell has two variants called alleles inherited from each parent. He suggested that amongst these two alleles, one allele is dominant in character and the other recessive. The combination of alleles determines the phenotype of a gene in an organism.
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Some of Mendel’s crosses examined three pairs of contrasting characteristics. Such a cross is called a trihybrid cross. A trihybrid cross is a combination of three individual monohybrid crosses. For example, plant height (tall vs. short), seed shape (round vs. wrinkled), and seed color (yellow vs. green).
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Diploid organisms have two alleles of each gene, one from each parent, in their somatic cells. Therefore, each individual contributes two alleles to the gene pool of the population. The gene pool of a population is the sum of every allele of all genes within that population and has some degree of variation. Genetic variation is typically expressed as a relative frequency, which is the percentage of the total population that has a given allele, genotype or phenotype.
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Updated: Mar 1, 2026

Methods for Performing Crosses in Setaria viridis, a New Model System for the Grasses
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SEX ALLOCATION AND OUTCROSSING RATE: A TEST OF THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS USING BROMEGRASSES (BROMUS).

Mark J McKone1

  • 1Department of Ecology and Behavioral Biology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455.

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Sex allocation in bromegrass species varied with outcrossing rate, with higher rates leading to increased pollen production. Resource currency did not significantly alter these sex allocation estimates.

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Area of Science:

  • Plant reproductive biology
  • Evolutionary ecology
  • Sex allocation theory

Background:

  • Sex allocation theory predicts how organisms partition resources between male and female functions.
  • Hermaphroditic plants provide a model system to study variations in resource allocation based on mating system.
  • Bromegrass (Bromus) species exhibit a range of outcrossing rates, offering a comparative framework.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To test predictions of sex allocation theory in hermaphroditic bromegrass species.
  • To investigate the relationship between outcrossing rate and the balance of maternal versus paternal reproductive investment.
  • To determine if resource currency affects estimates of sex allocation.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative analysis of multiple Bromus species with varying outcrossing rates.
  • Calculation of relative maternal and paternal investment using pollen-to-seed production ratios.
  • Quantification of absolute resource allocation (energy, N, P, K, Mg, Ca) for reproductive efforts.

Main Results:

  • Outcrossing rate significantly influenced sex allocation, with higher outcrossing rates correlating with greater paternal (pollen) investment.
  • Obligately outcrossing Bromus inermis allocated nearly half its resources to pollen, while selfing species allocated <2%.
  • Resource currency (e.g., energy, nutrients) did not substantially alter sex allocation estimates; differences were mainly driven by anther size and seed set.

Conclusions:

  • Sex allocation in Bromus is strongly modulated by the mating system, supporting evolutionary predictions.
  • Anther size and seed set are key morphological and reproductive traits determining resource partitioning between sexual functions.
  • The findings highlight the adaptive significance of varying reproductive strategies in response to outcrossing opportunities.