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Determination of Crystal Structures

Determination of Crystal Structures

In the late 1800s, the revelation that light extended beyond visible wavelengths led to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. Recognized as high-energy electromagnetic radiation with short wavelengths, X-rays prompted exploration into their interaction with crystals. Max von Laue proposed in 1912 that the periodic arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in crystals would cause them to diffract X-rays, a hypothesis confirmed through experiments with copper sulfate and zinc sulfide...

X-ray Crystallography

X-ray Crystallography

The size of the unit cell and the arrangement of atoms in a crystal may be determined from measurements of the diffraction of X-rays by the crystal, termed X-ray crystallography.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the change in the direction of travel experienced by an electromagnetic wave when it encounters a physical barrier whose dimensions are comparable to those of the wavelength of the light. X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths about as long as the distance between neighboring...

$X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples$ 01:10

X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples

X-ray diffraction or XRD is an analytical tool that utilizes X-rays to study ordered structures such as crystalline organic and inorganic samples, polycrystalline materials, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs.
According to Bragg's law, when X-rays strike the sample positioned on a stage, the rays are scattered by the electron clouds around the sample atoms. The X-ray diffraction or scattering is caused by constructive interference of the X-ray waves that reflect off the internal...

Mutations

Mutations

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations can be characterized in a number of different ways: whether and how they alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, whether they occur over a small or large area of DNA, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells.
Chromosomal Alterations Are Large-Scale Mutations
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Biological Effects of Radiation

Biological Effects of Radiation

All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, α and β particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 1, 2026

An All-in-one Sample Holder for Macromolecular X-ray Crystallography with Minimal Background Scattering

An All-in-one Sample Holder for Macromolecular X-ray Crystallography with Minimal Background Scattering

Published on: July 6, 2019

Radiation Damage in Macromolecular Crystallography.

Elspeth F Garman¹, Martin Weik²

¹Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK. elspeth.garman@bioch.ox.ac.uk.

Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)

|June 3, 2017

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Radiation damage limits macromolecular crystallography, even at cryogenic temperatures. New X-ray sources and techniques like diffraction-before-destruction offer promising solutions for structural biology.

Keywords:

Absorbed dose Cryocrystallography Global and specific radiation damage Radiation damage mitigation Radicals and their scavengers X-ray-matter interactions

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Crystallization and Structural Determination of an Enzyme:Substrate Complex by Serial Crystallography in a Versatile Microfluidic Chip

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$Microfluidic Chips for In Situ Crystal X-ray Diffraction and In Situ Dynamic Light Scattering for Serial Crystallography$

Microfluidic Chips for In Situ Crystal X-ray Diffraction and In Situ Dynamic Light Scattering for Serial Crystallography

Published on: April 24, 2018

Area of Science:

Structural biology
Crystallography
Biophysics

Background:

Radiation damage from X-rays hinders macromolecular structure determination.
This damage occurs even at cryogenic temperatures (~100 K).
Understanding damage mechanisms is crucial for advancing structural biology.

Purpose of the Study:

To review strategies for mitigating radiation damage in X-ray crystallography.
To highlight the impact of new X-ray sources on radiation damage.
To inform structural biologists about current challenges and future directions.

Main Methods:

Review of research on radiation damage mitigation over the last 15 years.
Analysis of factors influencing radiation damage rates.
Discussion of advanced X-ray sources and techniques.

Main Results:

Significant progress has been made in understanding the physical and chemical factors of radiation damage.
X-ray free electron lasers enable diffraction-before-destruction imaging.
Upcoming fourth-generation synchrotron sources will increase X-ray flux, intensifying the radiation damage issue.

Conclusions:

Ongoing research is vital for developing effective radiation damage mitigation strategies.
New X-ray technologies necessitate continued investigation into minimizing sample damage.
Advancements in X-ray sources promise to reshape structural biology research.