Is Transforming Growth Factor β1 a Cause of Hypertension?

Hypertension is a chronic condition in which the blood's force against artery walls is excessively high, posing risks such as heart disease. The condition's underlying mechanisms involve complex interactions among the cardiovascular, kidney, and autonomic nervous systems.Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): This system significantly influences blood pressure regulation. When blood pressure decreases, the kidneys secrete renin. This enzyme transforms angiotensinogen, a plasma protein,...

β1-receptors are primarily located in the heart and kidneys. In cardiac myocytes, these receptors interact with neurotransmitters released by the sympathetic nervous system during heightened activity or danger. As a result, β1-receptors get activated, initiating a series of biochemical processes. Excessive activation of beta receptors due to chronic stress can abnormally increase heart rate and contractility, resulting in high blood pressure or hypertension. To counteract this,...

The TGF-β signaling pathway regulates cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, motility, and development. TGF-β ligands that induce TGF-β signaling are synthesized in their latent form. Several proteases or cell surface receptors such as integrins act upon the latent form, releasing the active ligand. There are three types of mammalian TGF-βs: (TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3) that bind as homodimers or heterodimers to TGF-β receptors. The TGF-β receptors...

Hypertension, the most common cardiovascular disease, is diagnosed through repeated measurements of elevated blood pressure. Its risks, including damage to the kidney, heart, and brain, are directly proportional to blood pressure levels. Starting from 115/75 mm Hg, the risk of cardiovascular disease doubles with each increment of 20/10 mm Hg. The diagnosis relies on blood pressure measurements, not on patient symptoms, as hypertension is often asymptomatic until end-organ damage is imminent or...

Endocrinal or hormonal intervention in the cardiovascular system is predominantly exerted by the catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine, as well as a slew of hormones that interact with renal function to modulate blood volume.
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, catecholamines that enhance and extend the sympathetic or "fight or flight" physiological response. These hormones escalate heart rate and the force of contraction...

Rapidly dividing tumors, embryos, and wounded tissues require more oxygen than usual, lowering the oxygen concentration in the blood. At low oxygen or hypoxic conditions, an oxygen-sensitive transcription factor called the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 or HIF1 is activated. HIF1 is a dimeric protein of alpha (ɑ) and beta (β) subunits.  Under optimal oxygen conditions, HIF1β is present in the nucleus while HIF1ɑ remains in the cytosol. HIF1ɑ is hydroxylated by prolyl...