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Neurulation

Neurulation

Neurulation is the embryological process which forms the precursors of the central nervous system and occurs after gastrulation has established the three primary cell layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In humans, the majority of this system is formed via primary neurulation, in which the central portion of the ectoderm—originally appearing as a flat sheet of cells—folds upwards and inwards, sealing off to form a hollow neural tube. As development proceeds, the...

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Updated: Feb 28, 2026

Generation of iPSC-derived Human Brain Organoids to Model Early Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Generation of iPSC-derived Human Brain Organoids to Model Early Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Published on: April 14, 2017

Microcephaly.

Emily Hanzlik¹, Joseph Gigante²

¹Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 8161 Doctors' Office Tower, 2200 Children's Way, Nashville, TN 37232, USA. emily.hanzlik@vanderbilt.edu.

Children (Basel, Switzerland)

|June 10, 2017

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Microcephaly, a condition of reduced head size, can be congenital or postnatal. Evaluation involves history, physical exams, and often neuroimaging (MRI) and genetic testing, especially with Zika virus concerns.

Keywords:

Zika virus genetic abnormalities head circumference microcephaly neuroimaging syndromes

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Area of Science:

Neurology
Genetics
Pediatrics

Background:

Microcephaly is defined as a head circumference more than two standard deviations below the mean for age and gender.
It can be congenital (present at birth) or postnatal (developing later).
Numerous factors, including genetic abnormalities, infections (e.g., Zika virus), and injuries, can cause microcephaly.

Purpose of the Study:

To outline the evaluation and diagnostic approaches for microcephaly.
To highlight the role of neuroimaging and genetic testing in diagnosis.
To discuss the implications of emerging causes like the Zika virus.

Main Methods:

Initial evaluation includes thorough patient history and physical examination.
Neuroimaging, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is often the first diagnostic test.
Metabolic and genetic testing are considered for worsening microcephaly or neurological signs, often as confirmatory tests.

Main Results:

Microcephaly is a lifelong condition with no cure.
Prognosis is generally poorer for those with intrauterine infections or chromosomal/metabolic abnormalities.
Maternal Zika virus infection is a significant cause of congenital microcephaly and associated brain abnormalities.

Conclusions:

Early and comprehensive evaluation is crucial for microcephaly diagnosis.
Neuroimaging and genetic testing are key tools, especially when the cause is not apparent from initial assessment.
The emergence of Zika virus has increased the prevalence and awareness of congenital microcephaly.