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The process of olfaction, also known as the sense of smell, is a sophisticated chemical response system. The specialized sensory neurons that facilitate this process, known as olfactory receptor neurons, are situated in an upper segment of the nasal cavity, known as the olfactory epithelium. Olfactory sensory neurons are bipolar, with their dendrites extending from the epithelium's apex into the mucus that lines the nasal cavity. Airborne molecules, when inhaled, traverse the olfactory...
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The sense of smell is achieved through the activities of the olfactory system. It starts when an airborne odorant enters the nasal cavity and reaches olfactory epithelium (OE). The OE is protected by a thin layer of mucus, which also serves the purpose of dissolving more complex compounds into simpler chemical odorants. The size of the OE and the density of sensory neurons varies among species; in humans, the OE is only about 9-10 cm2.
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Humans detect odors with the help of specialized cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, called olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). ORNs possess hair-like structures called cilia, which are receptive to sensations from the inhaled air. When an odorant molecule binds to a specific receptor on the cell of the cilia, it leads to a series of events that ultimately cause the ORN to send electrical signals to the olfactory bulb in the brain through the olfactory nerves.
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Gustation, or the sense of taste, is intrinsically linked to the anatomical structures located on the tongue. This organ's surface, along with the entirety of the oral cavity, is adorned with stratified squamous epithelium. Evident on the tongue are elevated structures known as papillae (singular = papilla), which house the mechanisms for the transduction of gustatory stimuli. Four distinct types of papillae exist, each identified by their unique morphological attributes: the circumvallate,...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 28, 2026

A Free-breathing fMRI Method to Study Human Olfactory Function
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Olfactory dysfunction in patients with primary progressive MS.

Felix A Schmidt1, Matthew B Maas1, Rohat Geran1

  • 1Clinical and Experimental Multiple Sclerosis Research Center (F.A.S., R.G., H.K., K.R., F.P., L.H.), Department of Neurology, NeuroCure Clinical Research Center (F.A.S., F.P.), Department of Psychiatry (C.S.), Department of Audiology and Phoniatrics (Ö.G.), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin (F.P.), Germany; Department of Neurology (M.B.M.), Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL; MSB Medical School Berlin (H.K.), Germany; and Experimental and Clinical Research Center (F.P.), Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany.

Neurology(R) Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation
|June 23, 2017
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) experience more severe olfactory dysfunction than those with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). This impairment is independent of disease duration and disability.

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Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Neuroscience
  • Olfactory research

Background:

  • Olfactory dysfunction is a potential early symptom in multiple sclerosis (MS).
  • The impact of different MS subtypes on olfactory function requires further investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare olfactory function between patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS) and relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS).
  • To assess the prevalence and severity of olfactory dysfunction in PPMS versus RRMS.

Main Methods:

  • Standardized olfactory testing, including threshold, discrimination, and identification, was conducted in 32 PPMS patients, 32 RRMS patients, and 32 healthy controls (HCs).
  • Exclusion criteria targeted patients with alternative causes of olfactory dysfunction.
  • A composite Threshold Discrimination Identification (TDI) score was calculated.

Main Results:

  • A high prevalence of olfactory dysfunction was observed: 84% in PPMS, 31% in RRMS, and 3% in HCs.
  • Patients with PPMS showed significantly worse olfactory function (TDI score and subscores) compared to HCs (p < 0.001).
  • After adjusting for age, sex, EDSS, and disease duration, PPMS patients still exhibited worse odor discrimination, odor identification, and TDI scores than RRMS patients (p = 0.02-0.04).

Conclusions:

  • Olfactory dysfunction is more frequent and severe in PPMS compared to RRMS.
  • These olfactory deficits in PPMS are not explained by disease duration or disability (EDSS).
  • Investigating cellular differences in olfactory pathways may elucidate MS pathogenesis.