Gastrointestinal somatostatin: distribution, secretion and physiological significance

Somatostatin-like immunoreactivity (SLI) has been found throughout the gastrointestinal tract in all species examined. In the stomach it is mainly present in endocrine-type D-cells whereas in the intestine there is also an extensive distribution in enteric neurones. In all regions of the gastrointestinal tract multiple forms of somatostatin exist. A precursor (prosomatostatin) has been partially sequenced, three forms with 20 (SS-20), 25 (SS-25) and 28 (SS-28) amino acids completely sequenced, and somatostatin-14 (SS-14) demonstrated by radioimmunoassay. Both SS-14 and SS-28 exert a wide range of actions on the gastrointestinal tract and there is strong supportive evidence for a role in the regulation of gastric acid and gastrin secretion, gastrointestinal motility and intestinal transport. Both in vivo and in vitro studies on the secretion of gastric SLI into the vasculature have shown that nutrients initiate the process but that subsequent events are regulated by a complex interplay between hormonal and neuronal pathways. GIP is one of the most potent hormonal secretagogues. In the stomach, acetylcholine, opioid peptides and substance P are probably involved in parasympathetic inhibitory pathways and gastrin releasing peptide in stimulatory pathways. The sympathetic nerves are also stimulatory. Regulation of secretion of intestinal SLI has not been so extensively studied. Although SLI is also found in the gastrointestinal lumen the significance is unclear. Despite these advances the exact route of delivery of somatostatin to its target organs is uncertain and paracrine, endocrine and neural pathways may all be involved.