Inflammation initiated by stressed organelles

Key cellular functions including those related to energy metabolism, organization of the genetic information or production of membrane-bound and secreted proteins are compartmentalized within organelles. Various stresses such as differentiation programs, viral and bacterial infections, perturbations in protein production, mechanical constraints, changes in the environment and nutriment accessibility can impact cellular homeostasis and organelle integrity. Perturbations of these cellular compartments trigger repair and adaptation programs aimed at restoring homeostasis. These events are often associated with low-grade inflammation also termed parainflammation. While the nature and mechanisms of danger signals released by irremediably damaged cells are well understood, how transiently stressed cells trigger inflammation is still poorly understood. Emerging studies highlighted new mechanisms by which stress pathways promote inflammation. Cytosolic innate immune pathways are engaged by signals stemming from perturbed organelles such as the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or the nuclear envelope (NE). These observations indicate that these pathways function as guardians of cellular homeostasis and may contribute to disease in pathologies characterized by perturbations of cellular homoeostasis. Mitochondria-stress, ER-stress or NE-stress are emerging as proinflammatory signals that contribute to human conditions and diseases.