Related Experiment Video
Updated: Feb 25, 2026

Use of the Operant Orofacial Pain Assessment Device OPAD to Measure Changes in Nociceptive Behavior
Published on: June 10, 2013
Was it less painful for knights? Influence of appearance on pain perception
A Weeth1, A Mühlberger1, Y Shiban1
1Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.
Background:
Pain perception is a subjective experience shaped by different factors. In this study, we investigated the influence of a visually manipulated appearance of a virtual arm on pain perception. Specifically, we investigated how pain perception and vegetative skin responses were modified by inducing a virtual protection on the right arm by a virtual armour.
Methods:
Participants (n = 32) immersed in virtual reality embodied a virtual arm, which appeared in three different versions (uncovered, neutral or protected). During the virtual reality simulation, the participants received electrical stimulations of varying intensities. Skin conductance level (SCL) was analysed for the phase anticipation (from the moment the arm appeared until the electric stimulation) and perception of pain (after the electric stimulation). Pain ratings were acquired after the painful stimuli occurred.
Results:
The sense of embodiment was positive for the unprotected and neutral condition and lower for the protected than for the neutral arm. Pain ratings were significantly decreased in the protected arm condition compared with both the unprotected arm and the neutral arm conditions. The SCL measurements showed no significant differences for the three arm types.
Conclusions:
According to the pain ratings, participants felt significantly less pain in the covered arm condition compared with the unprotected and the neutral arm condition. Subjective pain perception was decreased by a virtual protection of the arm in VR. The simplicity of the manipulation suggests possible practical uses in pain therapy by strengthening the patients' own capacities to influence their pain using simple cognitive manipulations via virtual reality.
Significance:
A virtual, covered arm causes differences in reported pain ratings. Physiological measurements do not confirm the findings. Visual information about body protection can have an impact on pain perception.
Related Concept Videos
Factors Affecting Perception
An illustrative example of a perceptual set is the scenario where an airline pilot told...
Blood and Nerve Supply to the Bones
Nutrient Artery
The nutrient artery is the main blood vessel that enters the diaphysis via the nutrient foramen. While most long bones have only one nutrient foramen, large bones, such as the femur, may have two. This...
Nociception
Pain
Impression Management Techniques I: Managing Appearances
Factors Influencing Attraction II: Physical Attraction

