Exploring and explaining the "Santa Claus effect": cross-sectional study of jollity in 21 European countries

Christmas "is the season to be jolly" but, despite many recent studies of happiness and wellbeing, the population distribution of jollity is unknown.

To assess levels of jollity across Europe, hypothesising the existence of a "Santa Claus effect" whereby Mr. Claus, a long-established resident of Scandinavia, increases jollity through his social network.

Cross-sectional analysis of data from 37 966 participants in the European Society Survey (Round 7, 2014/2015) across 21 European countries.

Jollity has independent associations with satisfaction with health and income, male gender, younger age, and country of residence. Each one-point increase in satisfaction with health (on a 5-point scale) corresponds to a 0.79-point increase in jollity (23-point scale); each one-point increase in satisfaction with income (4-point scale) corresponds to a 0.76-point increase in jollity. Switzerland is the jolliest country in Europe.

The jolliest European is likely to be a young Swiss male who is satisfied with his income and health. If there is a Santa Claus effect acting to increase jollity, it probably acts not just in Scandinavia but across Mr. Claus's broad network of contacts and admirers in many countries.