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Related Concept Videos

Anatomical Movements00:51

Anatomical Movements

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Anatomical movements refer to the various actions or motions that can be performed by the body's joints and muscles. These movements are described using specific terms to provide a standardized way of discussing and understanding the range of motion at different joints.
Here are some common anatomical movements:
Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist,...
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Indirect Motor Pathways01:22

Indirect Motor Pathways

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The indirect motor or extrapyramidal pathways originate in the brainstem, the lower portion of the brain that connects it to the spinal cord. They consist of several distinct tracts, each with specialized functions. The four main tracts of the indirect motor pathways are the vestibulospinal tract, the reticulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract, and the rubrospinal tract.
The vestibulospinal tract originates in the vestibular nuclei of the brainstem. The vestibular system detects changes in...
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Axial and Appendicular Muscles01:18

Axial and Appendicular Muscles

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Skeletal muscles, the key players in our body's movement, can be classified into two groups based on their location and function: axial muscles and appendicular muscles. These classifications reflect the primary roles the muscles play in the body's structure and movement.
Axial Muscles
Axial muscles, situated along the body's midline, are intricately connected to the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum. These muscles facilitate facial expressions and...
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Gastrulation01:56

Gastrulation

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Gastrulation establishes the three primary tissues of an embryo: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. This developmental process relies on a series of intricate cellular movements, which in humans transforms a flat, “bilaminar disc” composed of two cell sheets into a three-tiered structure. In the resulting embryo, the endoderm serves as the bottom layer, and stacked directly above it is the intermediate mesoderm, and then the uppermost ectoderm. Respectively, these tissue strata...
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Cranial Bones: Superior and Posterior View01:14

Cranial Bones: Superior and Posterior View

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The superior view of the cranium shows the frontal and paired parietal bones.
The frontal bone is the single bone that forms the forehead. At its anterior midline, between the eyebrows, there is a slight depression called the glabella. The frontal bone also forms the supraorbital margin of the orbit. Near the middle of this margin is the supraorbital foramen, the opening that provides passage for a sensory nerve to the forehead. The frontal bone is thickened just above each supraorbital margin,...
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Neurulation01:30

Neurulation

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Neurulation is the embryological process which forms the precursors of the central nervous system and occurs after gastrulation has established the three primary cell layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In humans, the majority of this system is formed via primary neurulation, in which the central portion of the ectoderm—originally appearing as a flat sheet of cells—folds upwards and inwards, sealing off to form a hollow neural tube. As development proceeds, the...
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Temporal Changes in Vertebral Morphology of the Free-Ranging Rhesus Macaques From Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico.

American journal of biological anthropology·2026
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Modularity and integration of the neural arch and vertebral centrum in primates.

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Heritability in the Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta) Vertebral Column.

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Conserved patterns and locomotor-related evolutionary constraints in the hominoid vertebral column.

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Mechanical and morphometric approaches to body mass estimation in rhesus macaques: A test of skeletal variables.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 23, 2026

Reverse Dissection and DiceCT Reveal Otherwise Hidden Data in the Evolution of the Primate Face
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Locomotion and basicranial anatomy in primates and marsupials.

Catalina I Villamil1

  • 1Department of Anthropology, Dickinson College, PO Box 1773, Carlisle, PA 17013, USA; Center for the Study of Human Origins, Department of Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003, USA; New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology, New York, NY 10024, USA.

Journal of Human Evolution
|September 7, 2017
PubMed
Summary

Cranial base anatomy evolution is debated. This study finds facial anatomy, not locomotion, primarily drives cranial base variation in primates and marsupials, with body and brain size also playing roles.

Keywords:
BasicraniumConvergent evolutionHomininLocomotionOrthogradyPosture

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Area of Science:

  • Paleoanthropology
  • Comparative Anatomy
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Ongoing debate regarding cranial base evolution in response to locomotor and postural changes.
  • Limitations of previous studies using two-dimensional data to analyze complex cranial anatomy.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the relationship between three-dimensional cranial base anatomy and locomotion in primates and marsupials.
  • To identify other potential factors influencing cranial base anatomical variation.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of 3D cranial base anatomy in a large sample of primates (n=473) and marsupials (n=231).
  • Statistical assessment of the correlation between cranial base morphology and locomotor behaviors.
  • Exploration of the influence of facial anatomy, body size, and brain size on cranial base variation.

Main Results:

  • A minor influence of locomotion on cranial base anatomy was observed in primates, but not in marsupials.
  • Facial anatomy emerged as a significant driver of cranial base variation in both primate and marsupial groups.
  • Body size and brain size were also identified as contributing factors to cranial base anatomical differences.

Conclusions:

  • Locomotion is not the primary determinant of cranial base evolution in the studied groups.
  • Facial anatomy plays a crucial role in shaping cranial base morphology, alongside body and brain size.
  • Further research is needed to understand the complex interplay between locomotion, posture, and facial anatomy in primate evolution.