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The nose is composed of an observable exterior segment (external nose) and an internal segment within the skull known as the nasal cavity (internal nose). The external nose, visible on the face, consists of a framework of bone and hyaline cartilage enveloped in skin and muscle and lined with a mucous membrane. This structure is supported by the frontal bone, nasal bones, and maxillary bone and is supplemented by a cartilaginous framework comprising the septal nasal cartilage, lateral nasal...
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Epistaxis, or nosebleeds, occurs when small, swollen blood vessels in the nasal mucous membrane rupture. Typically, the anterior septum is the primary site of occurrence.
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The upper respiratory tract plays a vital role in the respiratory system, comprising several structures that facilitate air intake and prepare air for the lungs. It also serves as the first line of defense against pathogens and particles. This tract includes the nose and nasal cavity, the oral cavity, the paranasal sinuses, and the pharynx, each with specific functions and features.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 21, 2026

Infection of Primary Nasal Epithelial Cells Grown at an Air-Liquid Interface to Characterize Human Coronavirus-Host Interactions
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Chapter 8: Invasive fungal rhinosinusitis.

Praveen Duggal, Sarah K Wise

    American Journal of Rhinology & Allergy
    |October 13, 2017
    PubMed
    Summary

    Invasive fungal rhinosinusitis (IFRS) is a serious sinus infection affecting immunocompromised individuals. Early diagnosis and treatment involving antifungals and surgery are crucial for survival.

    Area of Science:

    • Otolaryngology
    • Infectious Diseases
    • Mycology

    Background:

    • Invasive fungal rhinosinusitis (IFRS) is a severe infection of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses.
    • It predominantly affects immunocompromised patients, often presenting with symptoms mimicking common rhinosinusitis.
    • Delayed diagnosis can lead to rapid progression, significant morbidity, and mortality due to tissue invasion.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To highlight the critical nature of Invasive Fungal Rhinosinusitis (IFRS).
    • To emphasize the diagnostic challenges and aggressive treatment modalities required for IFRS.
    • To underscore the importance of early detection and intervention in improving patient outcomes.

    Main Methods:

    • Diagnosis involves a combination of clinical presentation, endoscopic examination, histopathology, and imaging studies.

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  • Treatment strategies focus on reversing immunosuppression, administering antifungal medications, and performing aggressive surgical debridement.
  • Multidisciplinary approaches are often necessary for comprehensive patient management.

    • Main Results:

    • IFRS can rapidly progress from mucosal thickening to necrotic tissue, invading adjacent structures like the orbit, brain, and skull base.
    • The acute fulminant form is highly aggressive, but granulomatous and chronic forms also exist.
    • Prompt diagnosis and treatment significantly improve patient survival rates.

    Conclusions:

    • Invasive fungal rhinosinusitis is a life-threatening condition requiring prompt recognition and management.
    • Integrated treatment including antifungal therapy and surgical intervention is essential.
    • Early diagnosis and intervention are key to successful treatment and increased patient survival in IFRS.